Neo-nationalism, or new nationalism, is an ideology and political movement built on the basic characteristics of classical nationalism. It developed by applying elements with reactionary character generated as a reaction to the political, economic and demographic changes that came with globalisation during the second wave of globalisation in the 1980s.
Neo-nationalism is associated with several positions such as right-wing populism, anti-globalization, nativism, protectionism, opposition to immigration, Islamophobia in non-Muslim-majority countries, and Euroscepticism, where applicable. With globalisation and the idea of a single nation, neo-nationalists see the problems of identification and threatened identities. They call for the protection of symbolic heritage, like art and folk traditions, which is also common for cultural nationalism.
Particularly notable expressions of new nationalism include the vote for Brexit in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum and the 2016 election of Donald Trump as the president of the United States. Several neo-nationalist politicians have come to power or run strongly during the 2010s and 2020s, including Giorgia Meloni in Italy, Marine Le Pen in France, Rodrigo Duterte and Bongbong Marcos in the Philippines, and Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil.
Origins Neo-nationalism is considered a pan-West European phenomenon. It has its origins in the post-Cold War period and the changes that the third phase of globalization brought to the West European states. The European Union integration and enlargement gave rise to a series of economic, social, and political changes causing uncertainties on an individual and collective level. Empowerment of the European Union by extending its members and the referendums on European Constitution formed the idea of a transnational quasi-state and a global nation under liberal democracy as the single political ideology that governs that transnational state. After the referendum on the Treaty to establish a Constitution for Europe was rejected, the delegation of national sovereignty to the European Union was seen by the neo-nationalists as a strategic act that aims at accumulation of power that undermines states’ national sovereignty and their right to self-determination.
External factors The dramatic events that marked the Islamic world in the 1980s such as the Iranian Revolution set a start of increased immigration towards Western European states. The problems that immigrants encountered in relation to their arrival, accommodation, and integration within the domestic society of the hosting state motivated restructure of the political agenda and policy adjustments that integrated the diversity of immigrants. The inclusion of "foreign principles" next to the traditional elements that constitute the character of the hosting state as criteria for policy led to the feeling of the threat neo-nationalist felt. This process was framed as "Islamization" and turned into the explanatory factor for a specific defensive collective behaviour.
The conflicts and the violence that followed after the political destabilization in some Muslim majority states led to the categorisation of Islam as having an anti-democratic and anti-modern character that is at odds with Western liberal democracy. After the September 11 attacks, this image of Islam became dominant. The perceived sense of a "Islamic threat" to modern European culture resulted in the rise of national awareness and pride in terms of culture and folklore and a need of protection the national cultural identity.
Roots in nationalism Neo-nationalism is the successor to classical nationalism. Both nationalists and neo-nationalists see the nation as one family but differ in the criteria for affiliation. Nationalists see the state and the nation as a family whose members are inextricably linked based on ethnical, racial, genetic, religious or cultural homogeneity as criteria of belonging. In contrast, neo-nationalists take historical association as the major factor for granting membership to the national family, which makes them fundamentally different from their predecessors in terms of inclusiveness.
Overview and characteristics Writing for Politico, Michael Hirsh described new nationalism as "a bitter populist rejection of the status quo that global elites have imposed on the international system since the Cold War ended, and which lower-income voters have decided—understandably—is unfair." Michael Brendan Dougherty wrote in The Week that new nationalism is a "broad nativist revolt" against post-Cold War politics long "characterized by an orthodoxy of free trade, nurturing the service economy, neoliberal trading arrangements, and liberalized immigration policies." Political science professor Eirikur Bergmann defines new-nationalism as being a specific kind of nativist populism.
The Economist wrote in November 2016 that "new nationalists are riding high on promises to close borders and restore societies to a past homogeneity." Clarence Page wrote in the Las Vegas Sun that a new neo-tribal nationalism has boiled up in European politics and to a lesser degree in the United States since the 2008 financial crisis. In The Week, Ryan Cooper and researchers with the Centre for Economic Policy Research have linked 21st-century right-wing populism to the Great Recession. According to Harvard political theorist Yascha Mounk, "economic stagnation among lower- and middle-class whites [has been] a main driver for nationalism's rise around the globe." According to religion scholar Mark L. Movesian, new nationalism "sets the nation-state against supranational, liberal regimes like the EU or NAFTA, and local customs and traditions, including religious traditions, against alien, outside trends."
David Brog and Yoram Hazony wrote in National Review that some conservatives view the new nationalism associated with Brexit, Rodrigo Duterte, and Donald Trump as a betrayal of conservative ideology, while they see it as a "return". According to conservative commentator Jonah Goldberg, the nationalism associated with Trump is "really little more than a brand name for generic white identity politics."
Writing for The Week, Damon Linker called the idea of neo-nationalism being racist "nonsense" and went on to say that "the tendency of progressives to describe it as nothing but 'racism, Islamophobia, and xenophobia'—is the desire to delegitimize any particularistic attachment or form of solidarity, be it national, linguistic, religious, territorial, or ethnic."
Regarding new nationalism, The Economist said that "Mr Trump needs to realise that his policies will unfold in the context of other countries' jealous nationalism" and called nationalism itself a "slippery concept" that is "easy to manipulate". They also repeatedly contrasted ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism and implied new nationalism could become "angry" and difficult to control, citing Chinese nationalism as an example.
Associated politicians, parties and events Brazil
The president of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro of the country's Liberal Party has been described as a leading new nationalist. Bolsonaro's ideology and policies have been heavily influenced by his adviser, nationalist thinker Olavo de Carvalho.
China
Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping's concept of "Chinese Dream" has been described as an expression of new nationalism. His form of nationalism stresses pride in the historic Chinese civilisation, embracing the teachings of Confucius and other ancient Chinese sages, and thus rejecting the anti-Confucius campaign of Mao Zedong. New Confucian scholar Chen Ming has described the shift in ideology of the Chinese Communist Party, as "from the vanguard party of the proletarian to the vanguard party of the Chinese nation", and "from Communist utopia to the national rejuvenation of the Chinese Minzu".
Egypt Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (assumed office in 2014), and Nation's Future Party has been described as a new nationalist.
Hungary Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán (assumed office from 1998 to 2002 and from 2010 to 2026), the leader of the then-ruling Fidesz party, has been described as a new nationalist.
India
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi (assumed office in 2014) and his Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have been referred to as neo-nationalist. Modi is a volunteer in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a religio-socio-cultural voluntary organisation to which the BJP is aligned with, which has also been said to advocate a neo-nationalist ideology. Modi's nationalist campaigns have been directed by BJP strategist Amit Shah, who currently serves as the Indian Home Minister (assumed office in 2019), and has been touted as a potential successor to Modi as Prime Minister.
Yogi Adityanath, Chief Minister of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (assumed office in 2017), has also been identified as a neo-nationalist. He has also been touted as a future Prime Minister of the country.
Israel
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu (assumed office from 1996 to 1999, 2009 to 2021 and 2022), the leader of the Likud party, has been described both as promoting new nationalism, and as pursuing a foreign policy of close ties with other new nationalist leaders, including Trump, Orbán, Salvini, Putin, Modi, Bolsonaro, Duterte and Sisi.
In 2019, Netanyahu has forged a political alliance with the ultranationalist Union of Right-Wing Parties.
Italy
Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte (assumed office from 2018 to 2021), head of the populist coalition Government of Change, and in particular former Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister and the League's leader Matteo Salvini (2018–2019), were often described as new nationalists. While in office, Salvini was described by some media outlets as the most powerful politician in the country, and a "de facto prime minister". In August 2019, Salvini filed a motion of no confidence in the coalition government, asking new election to take "full powers", but Conte formed a new government between Five Star Movement (M5S) and Democratic Party (PD). At the head of this new cabinet, Conte toned down his neo-nationalist rhetoric.
In the 2022 Italian general election, the neo-nationalist Brothers of Italy emerged as the most voted party and its leader, Giorgia Meloni, became the new prime minister on 22 October 2022, at the head of what it was described as the most right-wing government in Italy since 1945.Italy elects most far-right government since WWII. CNN, YouTube
Japan
The 63rd Prime Minister Shinzō Abe (assumed office from 2012 to 2020), a member of the far-right organisation Nippon Kaigi, promoted ideas of new nationalism, as did the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan, which he led.
Mexico Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (2018–2024) has been described as neo-nationalist and often dubbed as "Mexican Donald Trump" by the media.
Pakistan Former Pakistani prime minister Imran Khan (2018–2022), the leader of the then-ruling Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (Pakistan Movement for Justice) was compared to Donald Trump and described as a neo-nationalist populist during his tenure.
Philippines
Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022) has been described as a neo-nationalist. His party PDP-Laban has adopted Filipino nationalism as a platform.
Poland Confederation is a main political coalition in Poland that promotes new nationalism, especially the National Movement. There is also a neofascist and National Radical Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski that promotes harshly anti-globalist, anti-immigrant and anti-liberal agenda.
Russia