A caliphate is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (), a person considered the political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the leader of the Muslim world (ummah). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.
During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman Caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey. The Sharif of Mecca then claimed the title, but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (the predecessor of modern-day Saudi Arabia), leaving the claim in dormancy. Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies, have claimed to be caliphates.
Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Shi'a Muslims believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the 'Household of the Prophet'). The Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) was established by Shi'as. From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR, the war on terror and the Arab Spring, various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims.
Etymology Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title 'king', or another from the same Semitic root. The term caliph () derives from the Arabic word (, ), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy', and has traditionally been considered a shortening of 'successor of the messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'.
History Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Succession to Muhammad
In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place in the saqifa (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The meeting was thought to have convened so the Ansar could decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca).
Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting, hastened to join the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension as only they could command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.
Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.Valerie J. Hoffman, The Essentials of Ibadi Islam (2012), p. 6 The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to secure allegiance from Ali, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months, Ali made peace with Abu Bakr and offered him his fealty.
Rashidun caliphs
Abu Bakr (), of the Banu Taym, was elected as the first caliph at Medina and presided over the conquest of Arabia. The only Rashidun caliph to die naturally, he was succeeded by Umar () of the Banu Adi, who was also a close companion and father-in-law of Muhammad. During Umar's reign, the caliphate expanded rapidly, conquering more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire.John Esposito (1992)
Following the assassination of Umar by a Persian slave, Uthman (r. 644–656) of the Banu Umayya, who was a senior companion and son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected caliph. His reign oversaw the completion of the conquest of Persia in 651 and continued the military campaigns into Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated by provincial rebels in June 656 and was succeeded by Ali (r. 656–661) of the Banu Hashim, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, who moved the capital to Kufa. Ali's accession to the caliphate triggered the First Fitna, a civil war ignited by the refusal of the Umayyad governor of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 661–680) to recognize Ali's authority until Uthman's killers were brought to justice.
After the Battle of Siffin between Ali's Iraqi army and Mu'awiya's Syrian forces, which resulted in a stalemate and inconclusive arbitration, a faction of Ali's erstwhile supporters, known as the Kharijites, seceded and rebelled against both sides, opposing his decision to arbitrate with Mu'awiya. Following Ali's assassination by a Kharijite dissident in 661, Mu'awiya invaded Iraq with his Syrian army and compelled Ali's eldest son and successor Hasan—who had been chosen as caliph in Kufa—to abdicate in his favour. Mu'awiya then entered Kufa and received the pledge of allegiance from the Iraqis, thus founding the Umayyad Caliphate.The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Cyril Glasse. pp. 39–41, 318–319, 353–354, Uthman was the son of `Affan, the son of Abu-l`As, the son of Umayya ibn Abd Shams. Mu'awiyah was the son of Abu Sufyan, the son of Harb, the son of Umayya ibn Abd Shams.
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Beginning with the Umayyad dynasty, the title of the caliph became hereditary. During the Umayyad period, the caliphate continued to grow in territory, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered approximately 5 million square miles (approximately 13 million square kilometres). However, the constant warfare exhausted the caliphate's resources, while revolts and tribal rivalries weakened it from within.
The early Umayyad caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the administrative practices and political institutions of the Byzantine Empire. The Umayyads made key reforms to the structure of the caliphate, including the centralization of caliphal power, the restructuring of the military, and policies of Arabization and Islamization within the bureaucracy. Under the early Umayyad caliphs, prominent administrative positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served under the Byzantines.
The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and the Arab tribes who originally served in the Byzantine military. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian Desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as Christian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army Ministry and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities. The Syrian army specialized in close order infantry warfare and favored using a kneeling spear wall formation in battle, likely as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting.
The Umayyads constructed grand congregational mosques and palaces within their empire, most of which are located in their metropolitan province of Syria. Their most famous constructions include the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus, while other prominent constructions include the desert palaces, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qusayr 'Amra.Byzantine-style mosaics are prominently featured in both the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, but the lack of human figures in their imagery demonstrated an innovative aniconism. Palaces were decorated with floor mosaics, frescoes, and relief carvings, and some of these included representations of human figures and animals.
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517)
Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad
In 750, the Umayyads were toppled by the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and poetry also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade.
In the ninth century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slaves known as the Mamluks. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, the creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the people they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until Al-Radi (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to the commander Ibn Ra'iq.
The Abbasid Caliphate ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. However, the Abbasids had already lost effective power outside Iraq by 920. In 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids conquered Iraq and occupied Baghdad. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled from thereon by local dynasties.
Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261–1517)
In 1261, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt sought legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III, who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik, but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517.
The Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered the Mamluk Sultanate and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.
Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031)
Although the Umayyad Caliphate was overthrown by the Abbasids in 750, the Umayyad dynasty survived to rule over Al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area and incorporated various local fiefdoms into his emirate.
Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when Abd al-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To bolster his cause against the Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, Abd al-Rahman III claimed the title of caliph in 929.