The culture of Indonesia () has been shaped by the interplay of indigenous customs and diverse foreign influences. As the world's largest archipelagic country, it is home to over 600 ethnic groups, including Austronesian and Melanesian cultures, contributing to its rich traditions, languages, and customs. Indonesia is a melting pot of diversity. Positioned along ancient trade routes between the Far East, South Asia, and the Middle East, the country has absorbed cultural practices influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, and Christianity. These influences have created a complex cultural tapestry that often differs from the original indigenous cultures.
Examples of the fusion of Islam with Hinduism include Javanese Abangan belief. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.
The Western world has influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arabic, Javanese and Malay folk music.
Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenous ethnic groups Batak, Nias, Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Sumba, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.
Indonesia currently holds sixteen items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, kris, batik, education and training in Indonesian batik, angklung, saman dance, noken, three genres of traditional Balinese dance, pinisi ship, pencak silat, gamelan, jamu, and reog. Additionally, pantun, kebaya, and kolintang were inscribed through joint nominations.
Traditional performing arts
Music
Gamelan is a traditional Indonesian musical ensemble, primarily associated with Java and Bali. It consists of various percussion instruments, including metallophones such as gambang and bonang, as well as gongs like kenong and gong ageng. Gamelan plays a vital role in cultural and religious ceremonies, shadow puppet performances (wayang), and traditional dance. Its layered melodies and interlocking rhythms create a distinctive sound that has influenced both Indonesian and international music.Bramantyo Prijosusilo, 'Indonesia needs the Harmony of the Gamelan' , The Jakarta Globe, 22 February 2011. Beyond its artistic value, gamelan is deeply embedded in local traditions and community gatherings. Recognized by UNESCO in 2021 as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, gamelan remains an essential part of Indonesia's musical heritage.
In West Sumatra, the Minangkabau people play talempong, a set of small knobbed gongs used in dance and ceremonies. Another key instrument is the saluang, a four-holed bamboo flute played with circular breathing, traditionally accompanying folk tales.Roth, Page 147 In North Sumatra, the Batak people's music centres around gondang, a percussion ensemble of drums and gongs used in rituals. A notable variation is gordang sambilan, a set of nine large drums historically linked to royal ceremonies. The hasapi, a two-stringed wooden lute, is often played alongside singing in traditional Batak music. In Sulawesi, the Toraja people use pa’pompang, a bamboo instrument resembling a large flute ensemble with deep tones. The Bugis and Makassar people play the kacaping, a small plucked string instrument used in solo performances or to accompany storytelling. In Kalimantan, the Dayak people are known for the sape, a long-necked lute with intricate carvings, originally played in healing rituals and warrior dances but now popular in modern Dayak music. They also use gongs and other percussion instruments in communal events. In Papua, traditional music prominently features the tifa, a hand drum made from hollowed wood and animal skin, played in rhythmic patterns for dances and rituals. Bamboo wind instruments, such as flutes and panpipes, are also commonly used.
The angklung, a traditional musical instrument from West Java made from bamboo, has received international recognition from UNESCO as part of the intangible cultural heritage. Another unique instrument is the Sasando from East Nusa Tenggara, a harp-like instrument made from a split Lontar palm leaf, known for its soft, flowing melodies.
Kroncong is a traditional Indonesian music genre featuring guitars, ukuleles, and a distinctive rhythmic style. Introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century, it developed into regional styles such as Keroncong Tugu in North Jakarta and Maluku, which retain strong Portuguese influences. Another well-known variation is Keroncong Kemayoran from Jakarta. A modern adaptation, Pop Kroncong, blends traditional kroncong with contemporary element.
Other notable traditional music genres in Indonesia include Tanjidor from Betawi culture in Jakarta featuring a brass and woodwind ensemble, and Jaipongan from West Java, which blends Sundanese music with dance. In the 1960s, Indonesia's music scene evolved with modern kroncong and pop influences. On June 29, 1965, the band Koes Plus was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music, which was banned under Sukarno’s government. After his resignation, the restrictions were lifted, and Koes Plus became pioneers of Indonesian pop music.Connoy, Jason and Chandra Drews (2010). "Koes Plus". In Those Shocking, Shaking Days (pp.13) [LP booklet]. Los Angeles: Now-Again Records.
Dangdut emerged in the 1970s, blending Javanese, Malay, Indian, and Arabic musical influences. Originating in Java, it quickly gained nationwide popularity with its distinctive drum beats and flute melodies. The genre later spread to neighbouring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei and has gained international recognition through diaspora communities and collaborations with global musicians.
Dance
Indonesian dance reflects the rich diversity of culture from the many ethnic groups that compose the nation of Indonesia. The dances showcase Austronesian roots, Melanesian tribal dance forms, and influences from foreign countries such as Indian subcontinent, Mainland China, and the Middle East, as well as European styles introduced during colonization. With over 3,000 distinct dances, each ethnic group contributes its own unique styles and traditions. Indonesian dances can be categorized into three historical eras: the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu-Buddhist Era, and the Islamic Era, and they fall into two main genres: court dance and folk dance.
In West Sumatra, Tari Piring (plate dance) is performed with dancers balancing plates while executing fast, precise movements. In Aceh, the Saman dance is known for its rapid, synchronized hand and body motions and was recognized by UNESCO in 2011 as an Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. The Batak people's Tor-tor dance involves rhythmic footwork and deliberate gestures, often performed in rituals and celebrations. In Riau, the Melayu dance is characterized by fluid, elegant gestures, commonly seen in formal ceremonies. Zapin, performed in Jambi and Bangka Belitung, blends Arabic and local influences with lively footwork. In South Sumatra, Gending Sriwijaya reflects the legacy of the Srivijaya Empire, featuring graceful choreography set to rhythmic melodies.
In Java, Bedhaya and Serimpi are performed in the royal courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Bedhaya, a sacred dance, is characterized by slow, deliberate movements that reflect spiritual harmony. Serimpi, known for its elegance, portrays Javanese mythology and royal traditions through refined gestures and synchronized patterns.Becker, 143.
The Topeng (mask dance) is a traditional Javanese performance where dancers wear masks to portray characters from Javanese folklore, history, and mythology. Accompanied by gamelan, this dance blends drama and theatrical elements. Gambyong, a traditional dance from Surakarta, is performed in welcoming ceremonies and festive events, characterized by smooth, flowing movements. Kuda Lumping (Kepang Jaran) depicts riders on woven bamboo horses, often incorporating trance performances. Reog, from Ponorogo, features the massive "Singa Barong" (Javanese lion) mask, weighing over 30 kg, held by a performer using their teeth, alongside bold choreography and powerful percussion.
In Bali, traditional dance is deeply woven into religious and cultural life, categorized into Wali (sacred), Bebali (semi-sacred), and Balih-balihan (entertainment). UNESCO recognized these dance traditions as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2015. Legong is distinguished by its intricate finger movements and precise footwork, often used to depict mythical tales.Miguel Covarrubias, Island of Bali. Knopf, 1946. The Barong dance, a dramatic portrayal of the struggle between Barong (good) and Rangda (evil), features elaborate costumes and dynamic movements.
The Kecak dance, or the “Ramayana Monkey Chant,” is one of Bali's most iconic performances. This dynamic dance-drama features a large group of men chanting “cak” in unison, creating a mesmerizing rhythm that drives the storytelling. Inspired by scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana, Kecak is not just a dance but a powerful theatrical experience, often performed against the dramatic backdrop of Bali's temples at sunset.
The Dayak people of Kalimantan perform the Hudoq dance, a masked ritual meant to invite spirits and ensure a good harvest. The Kancet Papatai dance reenacts scenes of ancient Dayak warriors, featuring energetic movements and traditional weapons.seni tari dayak diakses 16 Maret 2015 The Banjar people are known for Baksa kembang, a graceful dance performed at weddings and ceremonies, incorporating delicate hand movements and floral decorations as a symbol of beauty and prosperity.
In Sulawesi, Dero is a circle dance of the Kaili people in Central Sulawesi, performed during celebrations. In South Sulawesi, the Bugis Pakarena is a traditional dance with slow, graceful movements, performed by female dancers in elaborate costumes to the accompaniment of drum and flute music. Paraga from Makassar involves skillful footwork with a rattan ball, similar to sepak raga. Bosara, a traditional Bugis-Makassar dance, is performed by women with elegant hand gestures around a bosara (decorative tray), symbolizing hospitality and respect, often at welcoming ceremonies.
In the Maluku Islands, Cakalele is a war dance performed with shields and swords. Poco-Poco, a line dance from Ambon, became popular across Indonesia and internationally, especially in Southeast Asia. It is often performed in group exercises, social gatherings, and military drills. The dance gained attention in Malaysia but was banned in 2011 by some religious authorities due to perceived Christian influences. Despite this, Poco-Poco remains a beloved dance for recreation and fitness. In North Maluku, the Gala dance from the Sula Islands is traditionally performed to welcome guests and celebrate harvests or other festivities, with male and female dancers paired together.
In Papua, Sajojo is a popular group dance with energetic steps, often performed at festivals. Yospan is a social dance featuring dynamic footwork and leaps, commonly used to welcome guests. The War Dance of the Dani and Yali tribes involves stomping, spear formations, and rhythmic drumming. Tumbu Tanah, a highland dance, is performed by stomping the ground in unison to create a steady beat.
Drama and theatre