This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.
Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption. Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone.
Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.
In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula, which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.
Large Quaternary eruptions
The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP (10,000 14C years ago).
1000–2000 AD Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI 6; of tephra; Large Holocene Eruptions an estimated of were emitted Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI 6; of lava Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1903, October 24; VEI 6; of tephra Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI 6; of tephra Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI 7; of tephra; an estimated of were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer" 1808 mystery eruption, VEI 6–7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s. Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI 2; of lava, an estimated of were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere. Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI 6; of tephra Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, February 19; VEI 6; of tephra Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI 6; of tephra Bárðarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI 6; of tephra 1465 mystery eruption "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant ice core records and atmospheric events around the time of King Alfonso II of Naples's wedding; it is believed to have been VEI 7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815. 1452/1453 mystery eruption in the New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant ice core records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; of tephra; of sulfuric acid 1280(?) in Quilotoa, Ecuador; VEI 6; of tephra 1257 Samalas eruption, Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40 km3 (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic Ice cores provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano.
Overview of Common Era
This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.
Caldera/ Eruption nameVolcanic arc/ beltor Subregion or HotspotVEIDateKnown/proposed consequencesMount PinatuboLuzon Volcanic Arc615 Jun 1991 Global temperature fell by 0.4 °CNovaruptaAleutian Range66 Jun 1912Santa MaríaCentral America Volcanic Arc624 Oct 1902KrakatoaSunda Arc626-28 Aug 1883At least 30,000 deadConsiguinaNicaruagua Volcanic Chain1835Mount TamboraLesser Sunda Islands710 Apr 1815Year Without a Summer (1816)1808 mystery eruptionSouthwestern Pacific Ocean 6Dec 1808A sulfate spike in ice coresLong Island (Papua New Guinea)Bismarck Volcanic Arc61660HuaynaputinaAndes, Central Volcanic Zone619 Feb 1600Russian famine of 1601–1603Billy MitchellBougainville & Solomon Is.61580BárðarbungaIceland614771458 mystery eruptionUnknown6-71458Possibly larger than Mount Tambora's1452/1453 mystery eruptionUnknown6-71452–532nd pulseMiller et al.. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" Geophysical Research Letters 39, January 31 of Little Ice Age?QuilotoaAndes, Northern Volcanic Zone61280Samalas (Mount Rinjani)Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands712571257 Samalas eruption, 1st pulseWas the Little Ice Age Triggered by Massive Volcanic Eruptions? ScienceDaily, 30 January 2012 (accessed 21 May 2012) of Little Ice Age? (c.1250)Baekdu Mountain/Tianchi eruptionChina/North Korea border7946, Nov-947 Limited regional climatic effects.CeborucoTrans-Mexican Volcanic Belt6930DakatauaBismarck Volcanic Arc6800PagoBismarck Volcanic Arc6710Mount Churchilleastern Alaska, USA6700Rabaul calderaBismarck Volcanic Arc6683 (est.)Volcanic winter of 536Unknown6-7535IlopangoCentral America Volcanic Arc6450KsudachKamchatka Peninsula6240Taupō Caldera/Hatepe eruptionTaupō Volcano7230Mount Churchilleastern Alaska, USA660AmbrymNew Hebrides Arc650ApoyequeCentral America Volcanic Arc 650 BC (±100)
Note: Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Ōkataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, and Tarawera volcanic complex all had the same magma source in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field all had Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.
Earlier Quaternary eruptions
2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.
Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9 ka; VEI 6; of tephra.van den Bogaard, P (1995). 40Ar/(39Ar) ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significanceForscher warnen vor Vulkan-Gefahr in der Eifel. Spiegel Online, 13. February 2007. Retrieved January 11, 2008 Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 17 ka ±5; more than of tephra. Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17 ka. Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29 ka Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI 6; 30 ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite). Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption). Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5 ka; VEI 7 Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8 km), West Sumatra; VEI 7; around 52 ka; of tephra. Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI 8; 73 ka ±4; of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).Jones, S.C. (2007) The Toba supervolcanic eruption: Tephra-fall deposits in India and Paleoanthropological implications; in The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (eds.) M D Petraglia and B Allchin (New York: Springer Press) pp. 173–200 Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20 km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84 ka; VEI 7; of tephra. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more than of tephra. Sierra la Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11 km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95 ka; of Tala Tuff. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120 ka; of tephra. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140 ka; of tephra. Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years. Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 233 ka; more than of tephra. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270 ka; of tephra. Uzon-Geyzernaya calderas (size: 9 x 18 km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325–175 ka of ignimbrite deposits.Uzon, Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex (size: 20 x 16 km), Argentina-Chile; 450 ka; of tephra. Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85 km); 640 ka; VEI 8; more than of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff) Three Sisters (Oregon), USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600–700 to 170 ka years ago Uinkaret volcanic field, Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100 ka. Mono County, California, USA; Long Valley Caldera; 758.9 ka ±1.8; VEI 7; of Bishop Tuff.Hildreth, W. (1979), Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (2000). Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.25 Ma; VEI 7; around of the Tshirege Member (Upper Bandelier Tuff) eruption.Izett, Glen A. (1981).Heiken et al. (1990). Sutter Buttes, Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5 Ma by a now-extinct volcano. Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.61 Ma; VEI 7; over of the Otowi Member (Lower Bandelier Tuff) eruption. Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75 Ma; of tephra. Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50 km); 2.1 Ma; VEI 8; of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff. Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 2.2 Ma; VEI 8; of Cerro Galán Ignimbrite.
Large Neogene eruptions
Pliocene eruptions
Approximately 5.332 million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.
Boring Lava Field, Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7 Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years. Norfolk Island, Australia; remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3 Ma.Geological origins , Norfolk Island Tourism. Accessed 2007-04-13. Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, Bolivia; 2.9 Ma; VEI 7; more than of Pastos Grandes Ignimbrite.Ort, M. H.; de Silva, S.; Jiminez, N.; Salisbury, M.; Jicha, B. R. and Singer, B. S. (2009). Two new supereruptions in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes . Little Barrier Island, northeastern coast of New Zealand's North Island; it erupted from 1 million to 3 Ma. Mount Kenya; a stratovolcano created approximately 3 Ma after the opening of the East African rift. Pacana Caldera (size: 60 x 35 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile; 4 Ma; VEI 8; of Atana Ignimbrite. Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 4 Ma; of Frailes Ignimbrite E. Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 4.2 Ma; of Real Grande and Cueva Negra tephra. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Kilgore Caldera (size: 80 x 60 km); VEI 8; of Kilgore Tuff; 4.45 Ma ±0.05. Khari Khari Caldera, Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 5 Ma; of tephra.
Miocene eruptions
Approximately 23.03 million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin. Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite). Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma.Geography and Geology , Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. Retrieved on 2009-04-20. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; of Blue Creek Tuff. Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; of Panizos Ignimbrite. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; of Blacktail Tuff. Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; of Sifon Ignimbrite.