Electronic waste or e-waste in the United States refers to electronic products that have reached the end of their operable lives, and the United States is beginning to address its waste problems with regulations at a state and federal level. Used electronics are the quickest-growing source of waste and can have serious health impacts. The United States is the world leader in producing the most e-waste, followed closely by China; both countries domestically recycle and export e-waste. Only recently has the United States begun to make an effort to start regulating where e-waste goes and how it is disposed of. There is also an economic factor that has an effect on where and how e-waste is disposed of. Electronics are the primary users of precious and special metals, retrieving those metals from electronics can be viewed as important as raw metals may become more scarceNamias, Jennifer. "The future of electronic waste recycling in the United States: Obstacles and Domestic Solutions." Columbia University. MS degree in Earth Resources Engineering Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering Columbia University July (2013).

The United States does not have an official federal e-waste regulation system, yet certain states have implemented state regulatory systems. The National Strategy for Electronic Stewardship was co-founded by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), and the General Services Administration (GSA), and was introduced in 2011 to focus on federal action to establish electronic stewardship in the United States. E-waste management is critical due to the toxic chemicals present in electronic devices. According to the United States EPA, toxic substances such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium are often released into the environment and endanger whole communities; these toxic contaminants can have detrimental effects on the health of ecosystems and living organisms. United States e-waste management includes recycling and reuse programs, domestic landfill dumping, and international shipments of domestically produced e-waste. The EPA estimates that in 2009, the United States disposed of 2.37 million tons of e-waste, 25% of which was recycled domestically.

Lack of awareness for e-waste issues is also a problem in the U.S., especially among young people. In a 2020 survey of people between the ages of 18 and 38, 60% did not know what the term "e-waste" is, and 57% did not consider electronic waste to be "a significant contributor to toxic waste." With electronic recycling options readily available in most states, the issue seems to be awareness, not availability. In 2018, an association of European electronic recyclers based in Brussels called the WEEE Forum, created International E-Waste Day on October 13, with the support of 19 e-waste companies globally, in order to raise awareness about how large of an issue e-waste has become.

History of regulation

Up until 1965, there was no federal legislation regulating the disposal of solid and hazardous waste in the United States. The Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA) was passed by Congress in 1965. A major amendment to SWDA was the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), passed by Congress in 1976. The RCRA gives the EPA the ability to regulate the flow of hazardous waste for the entire lifetime of the product, including development, transport, and disposal. In 1986, a cargo vessel carrying 14,000 tons of toxic waste left Philadelphia and traveled around the world for more than five months continually being turned away from areas where it attempted to dump its contents. Eventually, much of the toxic waste was dumped into the Indian Ocean. This event sparked some of the current efforts to regulate the flows of electronic waste and ensure the health and safety of the global environment.

The U.S. has not enacted a federal law to regulate the domestic recycling of e-waste, but, some states are implementing policies to address its increasing accumulation. When electronic products stop functioning, they are either incinerated, landfilled, or recycled to salvage materials and protect public health and the environment by removing its toxic materials. Despite attempts to push federal e-waste bills forward, which stem as far back as the 1990s, US states have held the most legislative agency on e-waste. So far, 25 states have enacted legislation to regulate statewide e-waste recycling initiatives, which means 65% of the population must uphold their state's e-waste recycling policies. Every state with e-waste regulation laws, except Utah and California, use the Producer Responsibility approach to hold manufacturers accountable by making them fund e-waste recycling. But, because state e-waste laws vary, the effectiveness of the laws in regulating environmental and health harms can differ. Because the US has not ratified the Basel Convention on hazardous waste, the US can export e-waste to countries where the dismantling and recycling of e-waste are cheaper due to lax environmental and workplace regulations.

Environmental and health effects Because the US does not have federal or intergovernmental e-waste policies and electronics producers still manufacture products with hazardous materials, e-waste is oftentimes dismantled without strict regulations or compliance so substances like heavy metals, flame retardants, and plastics produce public health risks. Due to the unregulated nature of the informal recycling sector in developing countries, US e-waste handlers are exporting resources which could have detrimental effects on not only humans handling the e-waste, but also the environment in areas where the e-waste is exported.

Hazardous materials in electronic devices Source:

Electronic devices are combinations of hundreds of different types of materials; many of them are considered to be toxic when exposed to humans. Although present within the device, these toxic heavy metals have only been documented to become a health hazard once the device is broken down. The process of electrical device breakdown occurs in a variety of locations and settings (recycling sites, storage locations), yet becomes a prominent health hazard when broken down in domestic or international sites that do not have the correct equipment or recycling methods. When taken apart without proper recycling methods, tools, or protective wear, workers and residents become exposed to the toxic chemicals in the devices. E-waste negatively impacts health primarily through the exposure of heavy metal dioxins. Incinerating e-waste without proper workplace and environmental regulations poses a risk because it generates dioxins, which can cause cancer and plague the human body and environment for long periods of time. Moreover, open burning, a common practice in developing countries receiving e-waste, releases toxic fumes and dust that can be easily inhaled and effect nearby food sources and water bodies. In addition to direct exposure through open burning and dismantling, e-waste storages and landfills can result in leakage of dioxins into the natural surroundings area. These dioxins are able to permeate the soil and contaminate ground water and nearby vegetation; not only does ecological contamination negatively affect overall ecosystem function, but it is another method in which all living organisms' health risks increase dramatically.

A few of these chemicals include: Flame retardants: Some flame retardants like Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs), which can be found in e-waste plastic to make electronic products more flame resistant, are emitted into the environment through e-waste dismantling and become dust and air. BFRs are one of the materials that are used in the making of circuit boards and plastic casings. BFRs, which are fat-soluble, and bioaccumulate causing short-term effects, such as seizures and mountain sickness, and long-term effects, such as neurological disorders and endocrine disruption. PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers), a class of BFRs, interfere with brain development of animals and in the hormones associated with sexual development. Specifically, birds near processing sites who often carry these compounds in their shell. Long Term exposure to this toxin can result in problems concerning learning capability and memory function. Because of their toxicity, electronic manufacturers are phasing out BFRs. Lead: One can be exposed to lead through inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact, which could produce short-term effects, such as nausea, vomiting, convulsions, coma, or even death, and long-term effects, such as anemia, abdominal pain, encephalopathy, and nephropathy. Metallic lead exists in the electrical circuit boards and lead oxide is a component of the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and is used to connect the glass face plate with funnel sections. Lead can be found in lead-acid batteries, solders, and in televisions and monitors. Lead can leach from CRTs in landfill conditions, be released into the air through incineration, glass crushing, or high-temperature processing. Similar to other toxins, lead can accumulate in the human body and biomass over a long period of time and can have damaging impacts on the nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Lead is found in such high quantities of electronic waste that in the United States, prison recycling programs were found to have 50 times the safe level set by the EPA. Also, in China, children living near electronic waste processing sites are recorded to have 3 times the safe level of lead in their blood. Cadmium: Cadmium is another metal, which is found in rechargeable batteries and "phosphor" coatings in older cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Cadmium compounds are used in a variety of electronic products, their functions ranging from stabilizing PVC formations to serving as wire insulators. Cadmium is a rare metal that is very toxic to plants, animals, and humans and is released into the air by incineration or poorly executed dismantling. When released, cadmium commonly accumulates in nearby crops, resulting in additional exposure to humans and animals. Occupationally, fumes and dust containing cadmium compounds, a known carcinogen, can be inhaled directly, and long-term exposure results in kidney failure and bone problems. Heart disease, hypertension, and lung cancer are other health effects of cadmium inhalation. Cadmium exposure can lead to developmental issues involving motor skills, cognition, and learning. It can also potentially cause harm to kidneys. Mercury: Mercury is primarily utilized in the lighting mechanisms for flat-screen devices. Mercury is a highly toxic chemical that can have fatal or severely damaging effects on the human central nervous system, especially during early development ages. As one of the most toxic and popular metals used in electronic products, mercury is an e-waste pollutant that can affect humans through inhalation and skin contact. It is known to cause short-term effects, such as vomiting, fever, and diarrhea, and in the long-term, can cause tremors, nausea, neuroasthenia, and hypersensitivity. Because of its widespread application, mercury can be found in common household products like batteries, fluorescent lamps, and thermostats.

Domestic effects