Northern State ( ) is one of the 18 wilayat (states) of Sudan and the largest by area. It has an area of 348,765 km2 and an estimated population of 936,255. The area that comprises present-day Northern State was known in ancient times as Nubia. The territory has been part of successive ancient and medieval polities, including the Kingdom of Kush, and in the modern era the Mahdist State. The state borders Egypt to the north, River Nile State to the east, Khartoum State to the southeast, North Kordofan to the south, and North Darfur and Libya to the west. The disputed Wadi Halfa Salient is located on the border of the state and Egypt.
Etymology The name Northern State translates the Arabic Al-Wilāya al-Shamāliyya. The word wilāya means 'governorate' or 'state', while shamāliyya means 'northern'. The state was formerly known in English as the Northern Province and in Arabic as Al-Mudīrīya al-Shamāliyya, the 'Northern Directorate'. The state received its current designation in 1994 by presidential decree.
History
Ancient History In 2500 BCE, the Kingdom of Kerma was established in what is now modern day Northern State. Kerma was one of the earliest civilizations in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1500 BCE, following the expulsion of the Hyksos, the Egyptians, under Ahmose I turned their attention down south towards the Kermans, and conquered Lower Nubia. Most of Nubia was eventually colonized during the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. Lower Nile levels and a state of deterioration from within forced the Egyptians to withdraw from Nubia.
The power vacuum left behind by the Egyptians was exploited by the Kushites, who established their kingdom in Napata around the ninth century BCE. In the mid 8th century BCE, the Kingdom of Kush went on to conquer Egypt and occupy it for one hundred years, they also revitalized pyramid building 500 years after it has ceased to exist in Egypt. There are four pyramid sites in Northern State: Nuri, El-Kurru, Sedeinga, and Jebel Barkal.
In the 1st century BCE, Rome attempted to impose tribute on Kush. This prompted the Kushites to raid the Triacontaschoenus, and sack Syene, the Romans counterattacked, sacking Napata, the religious centre of Kush, a peace deal favoring Kush was reached between the two. Kush eventually started declining and fell in the 4th century CE.
Medieval period In the 4th century CE, Nobatia, a Christian Nubian kingdom, was established in Lower Nubia, with its capital at Faras. Nobatia was the first Nubian polity to emerge after the fall of Kush. Nobatia eventually unified with its neighbour, Makuria. To the south of Makuria was Alodia, with its capital at Soba.
In 652 CE, after successfully repulsing an invasion by the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate from newly Islamic Egypt, the Baqt, a bilateral non-aggression and trade treaty, was signed between the Kingdom of Makuria and the Rashidun Caliphate. Lasting nearly 700 years until its dissolution in the mid-14th century, the Baqt is regarded as one of the longest lasting diplomatic agreements in recorded history.
Nubia experienced a period of prosperity between the 9th and 11th centuries, with productive agriculture, and widespread literacy utilizing the Old Nubian alphabet. Architectural and artistic projects also experienced a rise during this period.
Makuria began declining in the late 12th century due to Mamluk invasions and infighting. By the late 14th century, much of the region had fragmented into smaller polities and petty kingdoms. During this period, Arab migration and intermarriage accelerated.
Post-medieval period and colonial rule In the 16th century, parts of southeastern Northern State came under the influence of the Funj Sultanate, which extended its authority through alliances with local rulers. Meanwhile, northern areas closer to Egypt experienced periods of autonomy interspersed with foreign intervention. In 1811, Muhammad Ali invited the leading Mamluk beys to Cairo under the guise of a peace treaty and massacred them. The surviving Mamluks fled to the Dongola and Merowe regions in Northern State, They chose Maragha as their new capital, a small town that would later be known as Dongola. They exerted limited control until they were subdued by Muhammad Ali's forces during the Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)
In the late 19th century, the region became a theatre of the Mahdist War (1881–1899). The Mahdist forces, led by Muhammad Ahmad, gained support along the Nile, and several battles took place near Dongola. Following the defeat of the Mahdists by the Anglo-Egyptian campaign in 1898, Northern State was integrated into Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956). State of Sudan Northern State was part of a province with River Nile State. The Northern Province was split into Northern State, and River Nile State in 1973. Both states received their current boundaries and designations in 1994.
In 2004 Northern State saw the construction of the Merowe Dam. The construction of the dam resulted in the forced displacement of 55,000–70,000 people, mainly from the Manasir, Hamadab and Amri communities. Proposals for Kajbar Dam prompted a UN expert to raise similar concerns about displacement of local populations. In June 2007, security forces opened fire on demonstrators opposing the project, an event known as the Kajbar massacre. In 2021 the government formally cancelled the Kajbar and Dal dam projects.
Sudanese civil war (2023–present) On 15 April 2023, one of the earliest battles of the civil war occurred in Northern State, the Rapid Support Forces battled Sudanese and Egyptian forces in the town of Merowe but were defeated and withdrew toward Khartoum. Their withdrawal ended ground combat in the populated parts of the state, but the border triangle with Libya and Egypt still remains contested. Northern has been subject to drone strikes by the RSF since late 2024. One strike in October 2025 killed five civilians and injured others, strikes on the Merowe dam also caused widespread electricity outages in the state and in other parts of Sudan. Northern state hosts 210,000 displaced people from Darfur and Kordofan.
Geography
Northern State lies in the far north of Sudan, stretching from the Egyptian border to the Fourth Cataract. The Nile flows through the state from south to north for a length of 650 km. It borders Egypt to the north, River Nile State to the east, Khartoum State to the southeast, and North Darfur, Libya, and North Kordofan to the south and west. Jebel Uweinat, a mountain range on the Egyptian-Libyan-Sudanese tripoint, is located on the far northwest of the state.
The state's geography divides into two main physical zones: the narrow Nile floodplain, and the surrounding desert regions. To the east of the Nile is the Nubian Desert, and to the west lies the Libyan Desert. These desert areas are primarily rocky or stony, with occasional sand dunes, and receive very little rainfall.
The Nubian Desert is characterized by a sandstone plateau crossed by seasonal wadis that generally do not reach the Nile. These wadis flow only after rare rainstorms and then quickly disappear, as the climate is arid, with very low and irregular precipitation, especially in the interior away from the river.
A geographic landmark in the state is Jebel Barkal, a sandstone mesa near Karima, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. Climate Northern State has a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers are hot and dry, winters are short and mild, and annual precipitation is very low across most of the state.
Rainfall is minimal, often well below 50 mm per year, with a clear north–south gradient in precipitation across Sudan, rains in the north are sporadic and highly variable.
The region records some of Sudan's highest temperatures. Observations from northern stations show summer daytime maxima frequently above 40–45 °C (104–113 °F), with extreme highs near 49–50 °C (120–122 °F) recorded at Dongola.
Riverine settlements and the Nile corridor contrast with the surrounding desert. Dongola experiences very hot, arid summers with only trace annual precipitation, while Wadi Halfa is among the sunniest and driest locations in the region, receiving effectively zero to a few millimetres of rain annually.
High potential evaporation rates, strong solar radiation, low humidity, and large diurnal temperature ranges outside riverine areas combine to limit rain-fed agriculture, as a result, agricultural activity in Northern State is concentrated along the Nile where irrigation water is available.
Warming trends and increasing drought risk have been documented across northern Sudan, with declining rainfall and more frequent extreme heat events threatening water availability and livelihoods dependent on irrigation and Nile flows.
Environmental issues Desertification and desert erosion threaten cultivable land along the Nile margins, as encroaching sand reduces the narrow floodplain strip on which most agriculture depends.
Date palm fires are a recurring hazard in the state. Fires were documented from the mid-2000s onward, with outbreaks in Merowe, Al Dabbah, and the area between Abri and Tebej. Fires are a threat to the state's primary crop, abandoned palm groves with accumulated dry fronds accelerate the spread of outbreaks. Approximately 250,000 palms were destroyed by fire between 2005 and 2016.
In November 2015, the former director of the Sudan Atomic Energy Commission, Mohamed Siddig, disclosed at a conference in Khartoum that 60 containers of nuclear waste from China were brought to Sudan during the construction of the Merowe Dam between 2004 and 2009 with 40 buried near the construction site and 20 disposed of in the desert. The Minister of Electricity and Dams, Moataz Mousa, subsequently acknowledged that 40 containers had been buried in a sealed cement hole near the dam, but stated they contained remnants of building materials rather than toxic waste. Sudan's Justice Ministry formed a committee of inquiry under the 1954 Commissions of Inquiry Act to investigate the allegations. During the early 2000's, Northern State had the highest percentage of cancer cases among all Sudanese states.
Localities
Halfa Delgo Al Burgaig Dongola Al Golid Ad Dabbah Merwoe
Cities and towns Settlement Locality Dongola (capital) Dongola Abri Halfa Al Dabbah Ad Dabbah Delgo Delgo El Khandaq Al Golid Old Dongola Dongola Karima Merwoe Korti Merwoe Merowe Merwoe Wadi Halfa Halfa
Demographics
Population Northern State has a population of 936,255, with 473,690 of them being male, and 462,565 being female. Most residents live in settlements along the Nile, where agriculture is concentrated, while the surrounding desert regions remain sparsely populated.
Languages Arabic is the primary language used in administration, education, and daily life across Northern State. Nobiin is spoken by the Halfawi, Mahas, and Sukkot Nubians from the Egyptian border to the Third Cataract of the Nile. Aandandi is spoken by the Danagla from Dongola to Al Dabbah.
Ethnic composition
Northern State is mainly inhabited by the Nubians, who are categorized into four subgroups in Sudan. The Halfawis near the border with Egypt, the Sukkot living a little north to the Third Cataract, the Mahas, in the Third Cataract region, and the Danagla in the Dongola reach. Northern is also home to Sudanese Arabs like the Shaigiya, the Manasir, and Hamadab. And Cushitic people like the Amri, and Beja in the east
Religion Islam is the predominant religion in Northern State. Christianity and traditional religions are practiced by South Sudanese refugees.
Economy Date palm cultivation