Third-culture kids (TCK) or third-culture individuals (TCI) are people who were raised in a different culture than their parents for a large part or the entirety of their childhood and adolescence. It usually refers to people who moved between cultures during their formative years due to a parent's career. Relocating permanently to another country is not usually included when describing a TCK; therefore, second-generation immigrants to any country are not usually described as TCKs. They typically are exposed to a greater volume and variety of cultural influences than those who grow up in one particular cultural setting. The term applies to both adults and children, as the term kid refers to the individual's formative or developmental years. However, for clarification, sometimes the term adult third culture kid (ATCK) is used.
In the expression "third culture kid", the first culture is the one in which the parents grew up; the second culture refers to the one in which the family currently resides; and the third culture is the fusion of these, the one to which the child will identify the most.
TCKs are often exposed to a second (or third, fourth, etc.) language while living in their host culture, being physically exposed to the environment where the native language is used in practical aspects of life. "TCKs learn some languages in schools abroad and some in their homes or in the marketplaces of a foreign land. ... Some pick up languages from the nannies in the home or from playmates in the neighborhood".Bell-Villada, Gene H., et al., eds. Writing out of Limbo: International Childhoods, Global Nomads and Third Culture Kids. Newcastle upon Tyne: UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2011. Page 23. This language immersion is why TCKs are often bilingual, and sometimes even multilingual.
Origins
The term third culture kid was first coined by Michigan State University professor Ruth Useem in the 1960s, who used it to describe the children of American citizens working abroad. Ruth Useem had previously introduced the concept of a "third culture" with her husband John Useem, who was a sociology professor at MSU, following their second year-long visit to India. They travelled to India with their three children.Ruth Useem's obituary in Footnotes, the Newsletter of the American Sociological Association, December 2003. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
Useem et al. (1963) depicted individuals who had undergone such an experience as having distinct standards of interpersonal behavior, work-related norms, codes of lifestyle and perspectives, and communication. This creates a new cultural group that does not fall into their home or host culture, but rather share a culture. The initial participants in this third culture were Indian and American professionals. Later, Ruth Useem took an interest in the children and how their experiences were shaped by life abroad. In 1993 she wrote:
In 1984, author, researcher and former missionary kid (MK) Norma McCaig suggested the closely related concept global nomad, in order to take into account that the child's situation was as a result of a parent or parents' career or life choice(s).
Kay Branaman Eakin, the former education counselor for the United States Department of State, worked with American families returning to the United States after having lived abroad. She described a TCK as "someone who, as a child, has spent a significant period of time in one or more culture(s) other than his or her own, thus integrating elements of those cultures and their own birth culture, into a third culture."Eakin, K.B. (1998). According to my passport, I'm coming home. U.S. Department of State.Eakin, K.B. Our consultants: Kay Branaman Eakin. Bennett Schoolplacment Worldwide.
David C. Pollock and Ruth Van Reken pioneered the TCK profile with the publishing of their book, Third Culture Kids: The Experience of Growing Up Among Worlds (first edition 1999), which brought to light the emotional and psychological realities that come with the TCK journey, often resulting in feelings of rootlessness and grief but also an increased confidence and ability to interact with many cultures. Both Pollock and Van Reken had personal experiences in the missionary community, Van Reken had been a MK herself in Nigeria. Their definition of what it means to be a TCK is widely referenced: "[A] person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents' culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK's life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of the same background." Through interviews and personal writings, this seminal work explored the challenges and benefits that TCKs encounter. Later editions widened the net to discuss the experiences of CCKs (cross-cultural kids) who may be immigrants, international adoptees or the children of biracial or bicultural parents.
General characteristics Third culture individuals are particularly adept at building relationships with other cultures while not possessing a cultural identity of their own. They can also be referred to as cultural hybrids, cultural chameleons, and global nomads. It has been discussed in the past that the characteristics that have been put forth by prominent researchers in the TCK field have only been discussed when referring to American children who have lived abroad. However, there has been further research done on TCKs that shows that the same characteristics described by Pollock and Useem in the most prominent TCK literature also apply to individuals from other nations who have also lived abroad for extended periods of time during their developmental years. There are benefits and challenges to being a TCK according to various researchers on the subject. The term TCKs may be applied to all social classes and includes immigrant and refugee students (Dewaele 8c van Oudenhoven, 2009).
Benefits Expanded worldview: TCKs have an understanding that there is more than one way to look at situations that they are exposed to or experience. This can also be a challenge however, when TCKs return to a culture that is homogeneous in their belief system, as an expanded worldview is perceived as offensive or useless. Third-dimensional view of the world: With an increased number of hands-on experiences in multiple cultures, there is a difference in the way that the world is perceived. For example, there has been an increase in cross-cultural authors, such as Khaled Hosseini, author of The Kite Runner, who have received awards for their works that are written from a multicultural perspective. These authors are able to provide vivid descriptions about the cultures they have directly experienced and thus their work appears to be "three-dimensional." Interpersonal sensitivity: Increased exposure to a variety of perceptions and lifestyles allows TCKs to monitor their emotions, and register societal norms and cues more adeptly so as to produce higher sensitivity to other cultures and ways of life. Cross-cultural competence or cultural intelligence: the capacity to function effectively across national, ethnic, and organizational cultures. TCK have been found to have higher levels of general adjustment as opposed to mono-cultural children. Cultural adaptability is also a benefit, although may also come as a challenge which results from lack of cultural balance. The major benefit is related to language exposure, according to Tracy Tokuhama-Espinosa.
Challenges Confused loyalties: Third culture kids can experience a lot of confusion with politics and values. This is especially the case when moving from collectivist to individualist cultures, or vice versa, as the values within each culture are different from the other. This issue is also related with the identity crisis, on a cultural level, not being able to feel a sense of oneness with any one nationality or culture. Oftentimes, TCKs cannot answer the question: "Where is home?" Painful awareness of reality: difficulty adjusting to cultures where the only culture that is discussed or focused on is itself. Ignorance of home culture: TCKs are often lacking in knowledge about their home nation, culture, town, or family. With current technology leading to the globalization of information, this is becoming increasingly less of a challenge provided the TCKs use modern technology in their host cultures to connect to their home culture. Understanding a culture's sense of humor, however, is a commonly cited difficulty with the transition back to a home culture. There are also general societal norms and practices that will not be known when a TCK is first re-introduced to their home culture but those are eventually learned. Difficulties with adjusting to adult life: the mixture of influences from the various cultures that the individual has lived can create challenges in developing an identity as well as with a sense of belonging. Feelings of rootlessness and restlessness can make the transition to adulthood a challenging period for TCKs. Studies have shown ATCKs to be less ethnocentric, less prejudiced, less authoritarian, and more tolerant than non-ATCKs. However, one study found that American ATCKs demonstrated more prejudice than non-American ATCKs on the Cognitive subscale of the QDI and the Social Dominance Orientation scale (SDO). There is a need for special attention for young TCKs in educational settings to make sure they are supported when and if entering a new school. This would allow for an optimal learning experience for the child. "Walters and Auton-Cuff (2009) found that female TCKs hesitate to develop relationships and have less emotional affect as compared to non-TCKs. Furthermore, female TCKs' identity development was delayed because of their focus on adjusting rather than creating a sense of belonging (Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009)."
Psychological effect
Identity One of the challenges of being a third culture individual is developing a sense of belonging, commitment, and attachment to a culture. These factors play a strong role in one's self-esteem and identity, and are especially apparent as present or not present among TCKs. There are psychological benefits to being a bi-culturally competent individual, meaning that adjustment to the host culture and repatriation do not pose a difficulty for the individual. Individuals who do not experience this same smooth transition into the new culture are referred to as "culturally rootless" and "cultural homelessness". Culturally homeless (CH) individuals often experience confusion over their identity and especially because the TCK is frequently abroad during the adolescent development years when identity is most solidified psychologically.
When individuals who have spent a significant number of their developmental years in a host culture and have not been able to adapt, develop an identity, and do not feel as though they belong, they are considered "culturally homeless". Cultural homelessness has been found to have both advantages and disadvantages, at times to being associated with low self-esteem, perceiving less control over one's own life, and an unsatisfactory level of experience with belonging and attachment.
Research