Black psychology, also known as African-American psychology and African/Black psychology, is a scientific field that focuses on how people of African descent know and experience the world. The field, particularly in the United States, largely emerged as a result of the lack of understanding of the psychology of Black people under traditional, Westernized notions of psychology. Overall, the field combines perspectives from both Black studies and traditional psychology encapsulating a range of definitions and approaches while simultaneously proposing its own framework of understanding.
In practice, Black psychology exists as both an academic and applied discipline, which focuses on furthering the well-being of people of African descent through more accurate knowledge. Based on different definitional systems, developments in Black psychology tend to utilize a range of approaches. Overall, the field has contributed to developing Afrocentric models of research, psychotherapy, and well-being, identifying inaccuracies in current psychological frameworks, furthering understandings specific to Black and African-American individuals, and advocating for increased equity and appreciation of Black excellence.
Definitions Definitions of Black psychology are varied and constitute an ongoing debate within the field. Building off a common framework of the study of Black understandings and behaviors, deviations most commonly arise regarding the specificity of Black psychology. While some theorists (such as William David Smith, Robert Chrisman, and Halford Fairchild) broadly define Black psychology as any attempt to characterize the understandings and experiences of people of African descent, other theorists (such as Joseph Baldwin, Na'im Akbar, Daudi Azibo, Amos Wilson, Shawn Utsey, Asa Hilliard, Wade Nobles, Linda James Myers, and Cheryl Grills) specifically define Black psychology through the lens of African philosophy and heritage. Theorists disagree over what is and what is not considered Black psychology. However, despite varying definitions, perspectives, and approaches in the field, as a whole, Black psychology focuses on the study of the thoughts, behaviors, feelings, beliefs, attitudes, interactions, and well-being of individuals of African descent.
Some noteworthy definitions of Black psychology include:
Joseph Baldwin/Kobi Kambon: "African (Black) Psychology is defined as a system of knowledge (philosophy, definitions, concepts, models, procedures and practice) concerning the nature of the social universe from the perspective of African Cosmology. ... What this definition means is that African (Black) Psychology is nothing more or less than the uncovering, articulation, operationalization, and application of the principles of the African reality structure relative to psychological phenomena." Na'im Akbar: "African Psychology is not a thing, but a place-a view, a perspective, a way of observing. African Psychology does not claim to be an exclusive body of knowledge, though a body of knowledge has and will continue to be generated from the place. It is a perspective that is lodged in the historical primacy of the human view from the land that is known as Africa." Halford Fairchild: "African American psychology is the body of knowledge that is concerned with the understanding of African American life and culture…. African American psychology focuses on the mental, physical, psychological, and spiritual nature of humanity. It is the collection of works that has been produced by African psychologists in the United States (African Americans) and throughout the world." Robert Chrisman: "Black Psychology has been defined as the study of the behavioral patterns of black people in a social environment that is manifestly antagonistic and unhealthy. ... It is concerned with developing appropriate methodologies and tools required for valid analysis of the black experience, while at the same time criticizing the methodologies and tools of white western psychology."
History
Influence of African philosophy and origins of Black psychology
Ancient Egypt In many ways, Black psychology today has been influenced by African philosophy of the past. The origins of Black or African Psychology can be traced back as far as Ancient Egypt or Kemet (around 3400-600 BCE). During ancient times, its earliest pioneers were concerned with "the development of one's consciousness and with the development and sustaining of positive relationships.
The concept of Ma'at One fundamental principle that came out of this time period was Ma'at or how "individuals thoughts, emotions, behaviors and spiritual energy aligned with a principle of truth". This concept was thought to originate from Ra, who was considered by Ancient Egyptians to be the God at the time of creation. Ma'at was considered a code of conduct and could be broken down into seven main virtues. It is also believed that Ma'at "absolutely requires social solidarity for its realization", highlighting the importance of a cohesive community in the application of this concept.
The Seven Main Virtues of Ma'at are as follows.
Truth Justice Righteousness Harmony Order Balance Propriety
For a relationship to be sound, it was thought to need to represent and incorporate these seven virtues. This concept of Ma'at is thought to have existed in many African nations such as Egypt, Ethiopia, The Congo, Central African Republic Equatorial Guinea, South Cameroon and Gabon. It also believed that Ma'at serves as the rules by which both humans and Neteru or gods live by. In many way, Ma'at can be simply understood as governing what is the right thing to do. These seven virtues also highlight community philosophical beliefs about what is necessary for healthy and productive relationships.
There are also seven principles of Ma'at that are as follows:
There is but one universal order There is one cosmic order There is only one measure There is one cosmic law that precedes all spiritual laws There is only one intelligence There is only one path There is only one reality
Within these seven main principles there exists 42 divine principles, which in many ways are similar to the ten commandments in that they outline what is and is not considered acceptable behavior. They also highlight the importance of unity within African societies, as there is only one cosmic/ universal order outlined in these seven principles.
Psyche and Soul According to Ancient Kemetic beliefs at the time, the psyche or soul could be divided into seven related elements.
Seven Elements of the Psyche/Soul are as follows.
KA BA KHABA AKHU SEB PUTAH ATMU
The first is KA or "the physical structure of an individual's humanity". KA is also thought to encase all other seven elements in many ways. The second is the BA or "breath of life". This element was believed to originate from the Creator and ancestor and reside in all individuals. The third element is KHABA or "emotion and motion". In this cultural context, motion refers to the natural rhythmic order of things. The fourth element is AKHU or "the capacity for thought and mental perception". The firth element is SEB or the "eternal soul". This particular element was thought to be time-bound, meaning it was thought to develop around adolescence and was thought to be related to the ability to reproduce. The sixth element is PUTAH or "the union of the brain with the conscious mind". The seventh element is ATMU or the "divine or eternal soul". All of these elements are interrelated and in many ways represent the interaction between humans and The Divine, which is critical to many African beliefs.
Development Following the end of the Civil War a push for education began to occur in the Black community. Moving away from secret night schools held during the time of slavery, a variety of learning centers and colleges began to open. Many of these schools were established by missionary associations and various Freedman societies. Federal government land grants such as the Morrill Act of 1862 helped to support these institutions and the additional aid of religious denominations allowed for the support of these schools. The years following saw the founding of Black colleges across the country including notable institutions such as the first historically black college Lincoln University (1854), Fisk University (1865), Howard University (1867), Morehouse College (1867) and Spelman College (1881). By 1940 there were more than one hundred Black colleges in the seventeen southern states offering a variety of degrees with many of the earned degrees in social sciences and education.
The first African American man to receive a PhD in psychology was Francis Sumner from Lincoln University in 1920. The first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology was Inez Beverly Prosser from the University of Cincinnati in 1933. Prestigious universities like UCLA, Cornell, and Harvard just to name a few, did not offer African American students the opportunities to receive a PhD in psychology during the 1960s. The first psychology course at Howard University was not offered until 1899, and was listed as "Psychology: The Briefer Course". This was the only course offered until 1906. The department of psychology was not developed until 1926 by Francis Sumner.
Psychology courses became both popular and integral courses in Black colleges, with at least one course appearing as early as 1906. Formally trained professors (both black and white) taught courses. Although many universities had programs of great influence, the most prominent was located at Howard University. Howard's successes were due largely to the efforts of Francis Cecil Sumner. Often considered the father of Black psychologists, Sumner structured the psychology program, teaching not only the ideas of Edward Titchener, John Watson, and Sigmund Freud, but a myriad of courses in topics such as learning, personality, mental hygiene, and experimental psychology. The experimental focus reflected Sumner's three objectives: to provide students preparation in professional fields, stress the cultural significance of psychology, and prepare students who wish to pursue graduate study. This not only made Howard different from other Black universities, but created a strong program that carried over to graduate studies. Although Howard only offered master's degrees, it offered a strong foundation for those who went on to pursue doctoral degrees.
Although psychology was a popular course in Black colleges, only Howard and three other black colleges offered an undergraduate psychology degree by the late 1930s. Emphasis was usually on educational psychology, leaving statistics and experimental focuses by the wayside. This led to a survey conducted by Herman George Canady between 1930 and 1940 concerning the nature of undergraduate courses, research in psychology, and other areas of concern in Black colleges. The survey revealed that fourteen of fifty colleges had a department in psychology and that theoretical and lab courses were rare. Psychology courses were primarily offered by departments of education, allowing the development of educational psychology and emphasizing the focus on practical applications of education.
There were also challenges when it pertained to teaching psychology involving black students and white instructors. Particularly, in the early years, there was a mismatch of interactional norms due to the cultural differences that underpin interactional behaviors, which include different backchanneling responses among Black and White Americans. This can be demonstrated in the incidence of "hyperexplanation", wherein an instructor provides lengthy explanation without recognizing affirmative gestures that do not include vocal backchannels such as "I understand you." This can lead to offense on the part of the black student, who could view the explanation as patronizing.