Raw meat generally refers to any type of uncooked muscle tissue of an animal used for food. In the meat production industry, the term "meat" refers specifically to mammalian flesh, while the words "poultry" and "seafood" are used to differentiate between the tissue of birds and aquatic creatures.Smil, Vaclav. "Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences." pp. 599–639.
While raw meat is sometimes washed before cooking, it is generally not encouraged as cross-contamination can spread bacteria from raw meat and poultry juices to other foods, utensils and surfaces.
Consumption of raw meat
While the majority of meat is cooked before eating, some traditional dishes such as crudos, steak tartare, Mett, kibbeh nayyeh, sushi/sashimi, raw oysters, Carpaccio or other delicacies can call for uncooked meat. The risk of disease from ingesting pathogens found in raw meat is significantly higher than cooked meat, although both can be contaminated. Meat can be incorrectly or insufficiently cooked, allowing disease-carrying pathogens to be ingested. Also, meat can be contaminated during the production process at any time, from the slicing of prepared meats to cross-contamination of food in a refrigerator. All of these situations lead to a greater risk of disease.Sammarco, M.L., Ripabelli G., Grasso, G.M. "Consumer Attitude and Awareness towards Food-relate Hygienic Hazards." pp. 81–90
Raw meat diseases Every year in the United States, an estimated 76 million cases of foodborne diseases are diagnosed, resulting in 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths. According to a multi-state study published in the America Journal of Preventative Medicine, the annual cost of disease caused by food-borne pathogens is estimated to be anywhere from 9.3 to 12.9 billion dollars in "medical costs and productivity losses."Altekruse, Sean F. DVM. "A multi-state survey of consumer food-handling and food-consumption practices." pp. 216–221. Most of these diseases come from contact with contaminated raw meat, although other "vehicles of transmission" are becoming more and more frequent due to global travel.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88. Other sources of disease-causing pathogens can include, but are not limited to: lettuce, sprouts, fruit juices, vegetables, raw milk, and water. However, the main source of disease caused by microbial pathogens is usually raw meat.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88. The type of pathogen present varies depending on the type of meat eaten."A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88.Jalali, Mohammad et al. "Prevalence of Salmonella Spp. in Raw and Cooked Foods in Isfahan-Iran." "There have been studies that show urinating on raw meat rids it of diseases". pp. 442–452.
Beef, poultry and seafood There are many disease-carrying pathogens found in raw meats, and they differ according to the source, whether it be mammalian, poultry, or seafood. Some disease-carrying pathogens found in beef are Salmonellas, Escherichia coli, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88.Myint, M.S. et al. "The effect of pre-enrichment protocol on the sensitivity and specificity of PCR for detection of naturally contaminated Salmonella in raw poultry compared to conventional culture." pp. 599–604.Scanga, J.A et al. "Microbiological contamination of raw beef trimmings and ground beef." pp. 145–152. Different varieties of Salmonellas are often found in contaminated poultry.Myint, M.S. et al. "The effect of pre-enrichment protocol on the sensitivity and specificity of PCR for detection of naturally contaminated Salmonella in raw poultry compared to conventional culture." pp. 599–604. Seafood itself can also contain a wide variety of pathogens. The most common pathogen in raw oysters is Vibrio gastroenteritis, while Salmonella, Plesiomonsas shielloides, and staphylococcus are found in contaminated raw shrimp, and Vibrio cholerae has been found in raw crabmeat.Altekruse, S. F. et al. "Vibrio Gastroenteritis in the US Gulf of Mexico Region: The Role of Raw Oysters." pp. 489–495.Wallace, Barbara J. MD et al. "Seafood-associated disease outbreaks in New York, 1980–1994." pp. 48–54. Many of the symptoms that result from these diseases involve intestinal damage and can have potentially fatal effects for those at risk. The symptoms of an E. coli infection include bloody diarrhea, severe abdominal pain, and possible complications for the immune-compromised, elderly or children. These complications can include Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) and neurological problems.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88. The symptoms of Vibrio gastroenteritis include frequent fevers, bloody diarrhea, long duration of illness, and hospitalization.Altekruse, S. F. et al. "Vibrio Gastroenteritis in the US Gulf of Mexico Region: The Role of Raw Oysters." pp. 489–495. While most of these diseases are still most commonly found in raw meat, the instances of detection in other mediums are increasing.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88. For instance, Salmonella is most commonly found in poultry, but has been recently identified in sources such as eggs, dairy, meat, and fresh vegetables and fruits.Jalali, Mohammad et al. "Prevalence of Salmonella Spp. in Raw and Cooked Foods in Isfahan-Iran." pp. 442–452. E. coli has also been found in beef, lamb, lettuce, sprouts, fruit juices, vegetables, raw milk, and water.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88. Possible reasons for the increase are the globalization of the food market, improper handling, and leakage.Duffy, Geraldine et al. "A review of quantitative microbial risk assessment in the management of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef." pp. 76–88.
Common bacteria
Beef "E. coli O157:H7" Salmonella serovars Shigella Staphylococcus aureus Listeria monocytogenes
Poultry
Salmonellas Campylobacter
Shellfish
Vibrio gastroenteritis Salmonellas Paragonimus Plesiomonas shigelloides Staphylococcus Bacillus cereus
Parasites Anisakis Diphyllobothrium Sarcocystis Toxoplasma gondii Toxocara Taenia Trichinella
Safety precautions Food can be contaminated at any step of production or cooking, especially those that occur at home before consumption. According to a study published in the Journal of Food Safety on consumer attitudes and awareness of disease, most outbreaks of food borne illnesses result from "contaminated raw foods, cross-contamination, insufficient cooking, inadequate cooling or a lapse of more than 12 hours between preparing and eating."Sammarco, M.L., Ripabelli G., Grasso, G.M. "Consumer Attitude and Awareness towards Food-relate Hygienic Hazards." pp. 215–221. The study focused on habits of consumers in the kitchen with preparing raw meat. According to the results, 14% did not wash utensils or dishes between using them for raw and cooked foods, and 75% were unaware of the risks of storing raw meat on upper levels of refrigerators and the risk of cross-contamination below.Sammarco, M.L., Ripabelli G., Grasso, G.M. "Consumer Attitude and Awareness towards Food-relate Hygienic Hazards." pp. 215–221. The instances of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis have increased in the past decade, according to the study, most frequently because of the "improper handling of foods by consumers and food service workers."Sammarco, M.L., Ripabelli G., Grasso, G.M. "Consumer Attitude and Awareness towards Food-relate Hygienic Hazards." pp. 215–221. Data gathered in a multi-state survey in 1999 found that out of 19,356 adults interviewed: 19% did not wash hands or cutting boards after handling raw meat, 20% ate pink hamburgers often, 50% ate undercooked eggs on a regular basis, 8% had raw oysters habitually, and 1% drank unpasteurized milk. These behaviors increase the risk of acquiring Salmonellas, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio gastroenteritis, and Escherichia coli.Altekruse, Sean F. DVM. "A multi-state survey of consumer food-handling and food-consumption practices." pp. 216–221.
Washing meat
Washing meat or cleaning meat is a technique of preparation, primarily used to treat raw meat or poultry prior to cooking in order to sanitize it. Several methods are used which are not limited to rinsing with running water (or with the use of a strainer) or soaking in saltwater, vinegar, lemon juice, or other acids, which may also enhance flavor when cooked.
Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the United States Department of Agriculture recommend washing or cleaning meats, as cross-contamination can likely spread bacteria from raw meat and poultry juices to other foods, utensils and surfaces. While it might have been appropriate at one time in order to remove impurities due to self-slaughtered meats, according to the USDA, in modern times, no further washing is needed as meat and poultry are cleaned during processing.
Meat inspection/regulation
History of U.S. federal meat inspection/regulation The first instance of federal regulation of the meat industry occurred in 1890, when European markets began questioning the quality of American beef. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) was given the power to make sure European standards were met, and in 1891 could inspect slaughtered livestock to be sold in the United States.Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. The momentum for the creation of meat regulation laws in the 20th century was spurred by the publication of The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair. Published in 1906, this exposé described the horrible and unsanitary conditions of the Chicago slaughterhouses and caused a public outcry for change.Smil, Vaclav. "Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences." pp. 599–639. The Federal government authorized the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA) in 1906 as a response. It "established sanitary standards for slaughter" and "mandated antemortem inspection of animals…and postmortem inspection of every carcass."Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. Another stipulation was that government inspectors must be in every meat production facility.Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. This law did not originally cover poultry, just beef and meat from other mammals, because poultry was not being mass-produced in the early 20th century.Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. The federal meat inspection programs continued to be revised throughout the 20th century, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, in light of studies that showed more dangers not yet addressed.Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. The current rule used by the FSIS, or Food Safety and Inspection Services, was published in 1996 and known as HACCP. This stands for the Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Systems. It was originally developed by the Pillsbury Company to ensure the safety of food used by the U.S. space program, and later adopted and modified by the federal government.Hulebak, K.L.; Schlosser, W. "HACCP History and Conceptual Overview." pp. 547–552. The HACCP's goal is to: