The study of the impact of globalization on women in China examines the role and status of Chinese women relative to the political and cultural changes that have taken place in the 20th century as a consequence of globalization. Globalization refers to the interaction and integration of people, products, cultures and governments between various nations around the globe; this is fostered by trade, investment, and information technology.Jiang, Shiwei. "Global Trade and Its Effects on China's Female Labor Market." In International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention, San Francisco, CA. 2013.Carnegie Endowment for the International Peace. (2009). What is Globalization?. Retrieved November 26, 2009. Retrieved from www.globalization101.org/What_is_Globalization.html. Globalization affected women's rights and the gender hierarchy in China, in aspects of domestic life such as marriage and primogeniture, as well as in the workplace. These changes altered the quality of life and the availability of opportunities to women at different junctures throughout the modern globalization process.
The dynamics of gender inequity are related with the ideological principles held by the ruling political regime. The imperial era was dominated by the social paradigm of Confucianism, which was a pervasive philosophy throughout the Orient. Confucian ideals emphasized morality, character, social relationship, and the status quo.Main Concepts of Confucianism. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2009. Retrieved from http://philosophy.lander.edu/oriental/main.html. Confucius preached ren (humanity) and the equality and educability of all people;Ng, R.M. (2009). College and character: What did Confucius Teach Us About the Importance of Integrating Ethics, Character, Learning, and Education? Journal of College & Character, vol 10(4), pp 1-7. Neo-Confucianists and Imperial leaders used his beliefs in social hierarchy, particularly in the family setting, for the physical and social oppression of women. As the Chinese government began to re-assimilate themselves into the global community in the late 19th to early 20th century, it shifted away from conventional Confucian ideals and women's role in society changed as well. After Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China in 1949, a change in traditional gender roles came about. Mao's death marked the beginning of the current communist administration, and an influx of international communications in the areas of commerce, politics and social ideals.Sung, Y. W. (1991). The China- Hong Kong Connection: The Key to China's Open Door Policy. pp. 1-183. New York: Cambridge University Press. Since the 1980s, under the new communist party, the women's rights movement has gained momentum and has become a national issue as well as a sign of modernization. Some reporters state that increased globalization and the Belt and Road Initiative have led to an increase in sex trafficking of women in China.
In rural areas, women traditionally work alongside their family to produce crops like tea and rice. In urban areas, women work in factories, living away from home. Most of these factory workers are young girls who send their income to their families. To help maintain the rights of women in factories, labor unions and organizations were built. In their homes, women take care of their children and cook.
Western bias Western scholarship has historically used ideas of subordinance and victimization to characterize traditional Chinese womanhood. These beliefs were largely constructed on the basis of ideological and political agendas, and were widely accepted despite their ethnocentrism.Teng, J. E. (1996). The construction of the "traditional Chinese woman" in western academy: A critical review. Signs, Vol 22 (1), pp. 115-151. Early European writings pertaining to Chinese women were produced by missionaries and ethnologists at the conclusion of the 19th century. The goal of the missionaries was to "civilize China", and highlighting weakness and victimization provided for the continuance of their work. This belief prompted scholars to use female subordination as a means to validate Western ideas about Chinese culture and Confucian principles.
In the 1970s, as the feminist movements were forming, they began to affect the literature surrounding women in China. Studies on Chinese women from this period were concerned with women's liberation, and were sympathetic to the feminist movement. This sentiment largely influenced the topics and methodology of the research. With this shift in perspective, the focus of discourse remained on subordination, patriarchal oppression, and victimization. These studies examined such issues as foot binding and the chastity of widows. Literature formulated by feminist writers did nothing to dispel the myth of the weak, subservient woman. These works provided a new bias that had not before been articulated. Feminists believed that Chinese women were a part of a "universally subordinated womanhood". This line of thinking illustrates the cultural superiority inherently felt by Western women. Writings on Chinese woman rarely account for differences in time, ethnicity, class, region or age, preferring to describe the status of women as a static, unitary fixture of Chinese culture, despite the political and geographic boundaries that defined different regions and the economic and social changes that occurred throughout history.
History of female oppression in marriage
Traditional roles and Confucianism From the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 CE) until the modern period (1840–1919), scholars and rulers developed a male-dominated patriarchal society in China.Tamney, J. B., & Chiang, L.H. (2002). Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 130. Patriarchy is a social and philosophical system where men are considered as superior to women, and thus men should have more power in decision-making than women. Confucianism was at the root of the development of the patriarchal society in China, and emphasized the distinctions between the sexes and the roles they have within the family. These ideologies continued through the Tang dynasty (618–907), and girls were taught from a very young age to be submissive to their fathers, then to their husbands, and later to their sons.Tamney, J. B., & Chiang, L.H. (2002). Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 131. During the Song dynasty (960–1297), Confucian scholars further developed the patriarchal tradition with more restrictions for women, including foot binding for girls at a very young age.Tamney, J. B., & Chiang, L.H. (2002). Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 132.
Married life in Imperial China The traditional Chinese marriage system benefitted men more than women. This effect could be seen in monogamy, concubinage, divorce, and the heritage of lineage and property through the male line. After the Spring and Autumn period, elite men could take primary and secondary wives, concubines, and maids. Ancient Chinese women were denied the right to choose their marriages. Generally, traditional Chinese marriage was organized by the parents of the groom and bride in order to obtain alliances between the two families to ensure the continuance of the family line.Tamney, J. B., & Chiang, L. H. (2002). Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies. p. 133. Westport, CT: Praeger. The prime mission of a married woman, regardless of her social status, was to bear at least one son in order to carry on the family name.Yao, E. L. (1983). Chinese Women: Past & Present (p. 22). Mesquite, TX: Ide House, Inc. Therefore, women were only valued for their reproduction functions. Three types of marriage dominated in Ancient China.Yao, E. L. (1983). Chinese Women: Past & Present (p. 17). Mesquite, TX: Ide House, Inc. The first traditional Chinese marriage type, which originated in the primitive society,Qixin Chen and Hong Dong. "中国抢婚习俗研究." In 中南民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版). 1993: 6, pp. 44 was called a "capture marriage", in which the groom would go to his prospective bride's house at dusk to "kidnap" her. The second type was called a "purchase marriage", in which women were paid for by their husbands.Yao, E. L. (1983). Chinese Women: Past & Present (p. 18). Mesquite, TX: Ide House, Inc. Once women were purchased, they became their husband's possession and could be traded or sold. The third type was the "arranged marriage", which could be traced back to the Warring States, emphasized the necessity of parental control and matchmaking institutions. Matchmakers acted as go-betweens for both families.Yao, E. L. (1983). Chinese Women: Past & Present (p. 19). Mesquite, TX: Ide House, Inc. If there was not a matchmaker, the marriage could be deemed unacceptable and could be dissolved. Once two people were married, the wife would leave her family, live with the husband's family, and be obedient to her in-laws as if they were her own parents.
During the Zhou dynasty, the upper class considered daughters-in-law as commodities of the husband's parents, not the husbands. This meant that wives had to be subservient to parents-in-law. They were expected to have impeccable manners, including refraining from coughing and sneezing in the presence of their husbands' parents. Wives could not leave their rooms or accept gifts from relatives without permission. Refusal to turn gifts over to parents-in-law lead to physical abuse and expulsion from the family. In addition, wives were required to serve in-laws, including helping them bathe, arranging their bedding, and cooking. People placed a strong emphasis on food preparation in Ancient China. Cooking was one of the most time-consuming tasks for wives because of traditional rituals and high expectations for the taste and appeal of food.
May Fourth Movement The "New Culture" movement began in China around 1916 following the unsuccessful activities of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government, and continued through the 1920s.Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Initials. (2009). Before and After the May Fourth Movement. Retrieved 5 November 2009. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_mayfourth.htm The May Fourth Movement, which took place on May 4, 1919, was a demonstration led by students at the National Peking University against the government, in which they protested the abolition of Confucianism and changes in the traditional value system.Yao, E. L. (1983). Chinese Women: Past & Present (p. 127). Mesquite, TX: Ide House, Inc. Many believed that the solution to China's problems would be to adopt Western notions of equality and democracy. Since the movement stressed group efforts and propaganda, women were involved in numerous collective tasks such as publication, drama production, and fund raising, which helped them gain more social contact with men and win respect.
Marriage reforms in the twentieth century