Criminal psychology, also referred to as criminological psychology, is the study of the views, thoughts, intentions, actions and reactions of criminals and suspects.Richard Ncsis, Applied criminal psychology: a guide to forensic behavioral sciences, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 2009, pp.7 It is a subfield of criminology and applied psychology. The field aims to understand why individuals commit crimes and how psychological principles can be used to prevent criminal behavior and assist the justice system. Criminal psychology is important because it helps explain not only what crimes are committed, but also why offenders may behave the way they do.
Criminal psychologists have many roles within legal courts, including being called upon as expert witnesses and performing psychological assessments on victims and those who have engaged in criminal behavior. They may also assist law enforcement agencies during investigations by offering behavioral insights on suspects. Several definitions are used for criminal behavior, including behavior punishable by public law, behavior considered immoral, behavior violating social norms or traditions, or acts causing severe psychological harm. Criminal behavior is often considered antisocial in nature. Psychologists also help with crime prevention and study the different types of programs that are effective to prevent recidivism, and understanding which mental disorders criminals are likely to have.
History Early research by individuals like Hugo Münsterberg and Martin Luther King in the late 19th and early 20th century is where criminal psychology got its start. These early theories attempted to explain criminal behavior through biological and psychological characteristics. Modern approaches were made possible by Lombroso's work, even though his arguments about the correlation between criminality and physical characteristics have been significantly debunked. Later advancements focused on psychological theories of crime, including cognitive-behavioral models and social learning theory (Bartol & Bartol, 2021). Criminal psychology started the late 18th century. The first seeds of forensic psychology were planted in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt, often referred to as the father of psychology, founded his first lab in Germany. Before criminal psychology, there was a conflict in criminal law between medical experts and court judges on determining how to proceed with a majority of cases which specialized the development of a specialized field for individual investigations and assessments of suspects. It is generally accepted that criminal psychology was a predecessor to the broader field of criminology, which includes other fields such as criminal anthropology which studies more systemic aspects of crime as opposed to individual suspects and court cases.Overtime, criminal psychology became more scientific and less focused on unsupported physical theories. Modern researchers now study how the environment, personality, trauma, and learned behavior can influence criminal actions.
Profiling
Criminal profiling, also known as offender profiling, is a form of criminal investigation, linking an offender's actions at the crime scene to possible characteristics. This is a practice that lies between the professions of criminology, forensic science and behavioral science. Most commonly used for homicide and sexual cases, criminal profiling helps law enforcement investigators narrow down and prioritize a pool of suspects. Part of a sub-field of forensic psychology called investigative psychology, criminal profiling has advanced substantially in methodology and grown in popularity since its conception in the late 1800s.
Profiling can be helpful when investigators have limited leads and need to narrow down possible suspects. It is most effective when combined with forensic evidence, interviews, and other investigative methods.
However, there is a substantial lack of empirical research and effectiveness evaluations validating the practice of criminal profiling. Due to the lack of empirical research, it is important that criminal profiling is used as a tool in investigative cases. Cases should not depend on solely the profile but as well as traditional techniques as well.
Criminal/offender profiling is a process now known in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as criminal investigative analysis. (see also: FBI method of profiling) Profilers, or criminal investigative analysts, are trained and experienced law enforcement officers who study every behavioral aspect and detail of an unsolved violent crime scene, in which a certain amount of psychopathology has been left at the scene. The characteristics of a good profiler are discussed. Five behavioral characteristics that can be gleaned from the crime scene are described:
amount of premeditation, degree of control used by the offender, escalation of emotion at the scene, risk level of both the offender and victim, and appearance of the crime scene (disorganized versus organized).
The process of interpreting the behavior observed at a crime scene is briefly discussed.
In a 2017 article by Pew Research Center, it was found that federal and state prisons in the United States held 475,900 inmates who were African American and 436,500 who were white. Similar historical data supports the substantially higher incarceration of African American people. This is in contrast with census data which has placed the percentage of African American people at about 12% of the US population. Negative ethnic stereotypes contribute to this disproportionate incarceration; it has served as a justification for the unofficial policies and practices of racial profiling by criminal justice practitioners.
The cultural, environmental and traditional concepts of communities play a major role in individual psychology, providing profilers with a potential basis for behavioral patterns learned by offenders during their upbringing. They also evaluate the safety of prisons for those incarcerated, as some individuals may be predisposed to recidivism if the prisoners' mental health is not adequately addressed. There are several individual factors contributing to developing a criminal profile that both meets legal requirements and treats individuals humanely.
Comparison to forensics
The effect of psychosocial factors on brain functioning and behavior is a central part of analysis for both forensic and criminal psychologists, under the category of applied psychology. For forensic psychiatry, major areas of criminal evaluations include assessing the ability of an individual to stand trial, providing an opinion on what the mental state of the individual was at the time of offense, risk management for future offenses (recidivism), providing treatment to criminals including medication and psychotherapy, and being an expert witness. This process often involves psychological testing. Forensic psychologists have similar roles to forensic psychiatrists, although are unable to prescribe medication. Criminal psychologists focus on research, profiling, and educating/assisting law enforcement with the detainment of suspects.
Both criminal and forensic psychology contribute to the legal system but they do so in different ways. Their shared goal is to provide psychological insight that supports fair evaluations, informed decisions, and public safety.
Criminal and forensic psychologists may also consider the following factors:
The current presence of mental disorders and disabilities The level of accountability or responsibility an individual has for a crime due to mental disorders Likelihood of recidivism and involved risk factors Epidemiology of related mental disorders under consideration The motivation behind why a crime was committed. Criminal psychology is also related to legal psychology, forensic psychology and crime investigations.
The question of competency to stand trial is to question of an offender's current state of mind. This assesses the offender's ability to understand the charges against them, the possible outcomes of being convicted/acquitted of these charges and their ability to assist their attorney with their defense. The question of sanity/insanity or criminal responsibility is an assessment of the offender's state of mind at the time of the crime. This refers to their ability to understand right from wrong and what is illegal. The insanity defense is rarely used, as it is very difficult to prove. If declared insane, an offender may be committed to a secure hospital facility, potentially for much longer than they would have served in prison.
Criminal Psychology in Practice In practical settings, criminal psychologists are involved in criminal profiling, where behavioral patterns and psychological traits are used to help identify suspects. They also perform court-ordered psychological evaluations to determine competency, assess risk, and offer insights into an offender's mental state at the time of a crime. They may also assist correctional facilities by evaluating inmates and recommending appropriate treatment or rehabilitation programs. These evaluations can influence sentencing and treatment recommendations.
Crime Prevention There are several programs that attempt to help teens and young adults that are having disciplinary problems and involvement with the law. These programs include Scared Straight, Boot Camps, and rehabilitation. Research shows that these programs are ineffective or that they may even increase the likelihood of participants reoffending. In order for these interventions to be effective the person needs to voluntarily accept treatment. Research has shown that the most effective methods for preventing recidivism are Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) or rehabilitation programs that teach skills necessary to continue living after the duration of the programs. It is one of the most widely used methods, focusing on identifying and changing the thought patterns that lead to criminal behavior. CBT helps offenders understand the consequences of their actions and learn alternative coping strategies. Studies have shown that CBT can significantly reduce the likelihood of reoffending, particularly in young offenders. There are several therapies that are used to help criminals:
Intensive Multimodal Cognitive Therapy Anger Management Motivational Interviewing Dialectical Behavior Therapy Schema Modal Therapy Functional Family Therapy Group-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Mentorship Programs Multidimensional Family Therapy Another approach, psychodynamic therapy, draws from Freud's psychoanalytic theory and seeks to uncover unconscious conflicts that may lead to criminal behavior. While psychodynamic therapy is less commonly used today, it can still provide valuable insights into deep-rooted psychological issues that may contribute to criminal tendencies. Additionally, anger management programs and social skills training have been implemented in various correctional settings, aiming to help offenders deal with emotions in a constructive way. These therapies are especially relevant for individuals who commit crimes due to impulse control issues or aggression.
Distinction from Forensic Psychology Although often used interchangeably, criminal psychology and forensic psychology differ in scope. Forensic psychology broadly involves the application of psychological knowledge to legal matters, including civil and family law. Criminal psychology, by contrast, focuses specifically on understanding criminal behavior and applying this understanding in investigative and correctional settings (Gudjonsson, 2003; Bartol & Bartol, 2021).