Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (; 10 November 1565 – 25 February 1601) was an English nobleman, courtier and army officer who was a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I. A prominent figure in late Elizabethan politics, he participated in military campaigns against Spain and Ireland.
A charismatic and ambitious youth, Robert Devereux grew up in a family of courtiers with strong ties to the Queen, who was his first-cousin-twice-removed. Following his father's death in 1576, he succeeded as 2nd Earl of Essex and became a royal ward. He entered court in 1585 as a member of his stepfather Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester's entourage. Essex rose quickly at court and developed a close personal relationship with the Queen. He played a prominent role in England's military campaigns during the Anglo-Spanish War and Eighty Years' War, including expeditions to Portugal and the Azores, particularly a victory at Cádiz, which gave him celebrity status among the London elite.
Towards the end of the 1590s, Essex's position at court was threatened by Robert Cecil. Essex was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland during the Nine Years' War. Despite considerable resources, his 1599 campaign against the Irish confederacy was a military disaster, ruining his reputation and straining his relationship with the Queen. He deserted his post and was subsequently placed under house arrest, resulting in a complete emotional collapse. In February 1601, he led a failed coup against the government and was arrested, tried for treason, and executed by beheading at the Tower of London.
The nature of Essex's turbulent relationship with Elizabeth has been the subject of speculation by both historians and dramatists.
Early life and education
Robert Devereux was born on 10 November 1565. fn. 3; ; ; , 1st paragraph. at Netherwood in Herefordshire,. "There was Netherwood, near Bromyard, sometimes said to be Robert's birthplace."; : born in Netherwood, Herefordshire. the eldest son of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, and his wife Lettice Knollys. From birth, the young Robert Devereux had a strong association with Queen Elizabeth I. Lettice was a cousin and close friend of Elizabeth and served as her Maid of the Privy Chamber. Robert Devereux was presumably named after his godfather Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who was the Queen's favourite for many years. Additionally, Devereux's maternal great-grandmother Mary Boleyn was a sister of Elizabeth's mother Anne Boleyn, making him a first-cousin-twice-removed of the Queen.
Devereux had two elder sisters, Penelope and Dorothy, a younger brother, Walter, and another brother Francis who died soon after birth. Devereux and his siblings were brought up at the family seat at Chartley in Staffordshire. From 1573, Devereux's father, Walter, was involved in a scheme to colonise Ulster and therefore spent much of his time in Ireland.
Walter died in September 1576. Ten-year-old Robert Devereux - who acceded to the earldom as 2nd Earl of Essex - became a ward of the Crown. Prominent minister Lord Burghley was Master of the Court of Wards and therefore assumed chief responsibility for young Essex's welfare.: Burghley was Master of the Court of Wards; : Burghley assumed chief responsibility for Essex. He was also brought up by leading courtiers Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex and Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon. Essex was an intelligent and promising child; a report dated November 1576 described him as "very courteous and modest, rather disposed to hear than to answer, given greatly to learning, weak and tender, but very comely and beautiful". By this time, he could speak Latin and French.
Essex's late father had crippled his family's finances and left the young earl £18,000 in debt. His father's legal advisor Richard Broughton oversaw the family estate whilst he was still a minor. In January 1577, Essex left Chartley to travel to London, where he briefly stayed at Burghley's residence Cecil House. He also spent time at Theobalds, Burghley's estate in Hertfordshire, where he associated with Burghley's son Robert Cecil.
As a boy he was tutored by Thomas Ashton, headmaster of Shrewsbury School and a family servant, then by Ashton's protégé Robert Wright. In early May 1577, Essex entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He matriculated by 1579, and in 1581 he graduated with a Master of Arts. He spent the next four years travelling around the British countryside.
Early career Apprenticeship in the Netherlands In 1585, Essex came under pressure from his mother to establish a career as a courtier. He joined the entourage of his new stepfather Leicester (Lettice and Leicester married in 1578) and visited the royal court in September 1585. Leicester became a significant patron for his stepson, and he instilled in Essex a sense of unity with fellow Protestants across Europe. Despite his later status as a royal favourite, Essex went unnoticed by the Queen in his early visits to court; she was preoccupied by the Anglo-Spanish War and the Eighty Years' War.
Essex was granted permission to accompany Leicester on a military apprenticeship in the Spanish Netherlands. He was appointed colonel-general of the English cavalry in the Netherlands, a prestigious position which signified his status as Leicester's new protégé. In September 1586, Essex and his horsemen successfully attacked a much larger Spanish force in the Battle of Zutphen, for which Leicester made him a knight-banneret. Leicester's nephew Philip Sidney, a beloved courtier mortally wounded at Zutphen, bequeathed one of his best swords to Essex. In effect, Sidney transferred to Essex his dual role as England's champion of Protestantism and Leicester's right-hand man.
Royal favourite
Essex returned to England as a war hero in late October 1586 and quickly caught the Queen's eye. Women were susceptible to Essex's looks and charm, and Elizabeth was no exception. His attention, which made the ageing Queen feel young again, was a welcome distraction from her anxiety concerning the impending execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Leicester, himself a former favourite, supported Essex at court in order to further his own interests and weaken the standing of his rival Walter Raleigh. By May 1587, Essex was one of Elizabeth's constant companions, and during the entire summer they were observed riding and walking together.The extent of Elizabeth's leniency towards Essex is evident from the outcome of a furious argument between the two in July 1587, when Essex criticised her attachment to Raleigh. Essex rode off to join the Siege of Sluis, but was stopped at the coast by a courtier sent by the Queen. Essex apparently suffered no serious consequences and was back at court within days. Leicester convinced Elizabeth to appoint Essex as Master of the Horse, which ensured close attendance on the Queen and increased Essex's pay by about £1500 annually. She also granted Essex the use of York House. In April 1588, he was created honorary MA of the University of Oxford and elected a Knight of the Garter.
Leicester died in September 1588, briefly leaving Essex without guidance and his family financially exposed. Leicester's death intensified the court rivalry between Essex and Raleigh. They came close to duelling in late December 1588, only to be stopped by Elizabeth and the Privy Council's intervention. Essex's fortunes improved as he benefited greatly from the seizure of Leicester's assets; in January 1589, he was granted Leicester's lucrative monopoly on sweet wines, which became vital to his financial standing. He negotiated the lease for Leicester House, which by 1593 was renamed Essex House. He also became acquainted with the lawyer Francis Bacon, who by July 1591 acted as his confidential advisor. In February 1593, Essex was made a member of the Privy Council.
Despite his determination to remain in the Queen's favour, Essex was ambivalent about his career as a courtier. He considered military service the highest form of royal service and consistently angled for these opportunities. He hoped this would result in additional rewards from the Queen. However, his poor judgment on the relationship between warfare and court politics proved to be a major factor in his later downfall. He also considered himself more capable of leading the country than the outdated Elizabeth, and sought to establish himself as the Queen's primary advisor and policy-maker.
Continental military expeditions Essex was given special treatment when he resumed his military service with Leicester during the Spanish Armada in July and August 1588. Although the English cavalry commanders had already been appointed, Elizabeth made Essex the overall commander of the cavalry in Leicester's army as "she would not have [Essex] discontented". He had his pick of the largest and best-equipped private units in the English army.
In April 1589, Essex joined the English Armada led by John Norris and Francis Drake in support of António, Prior of Crato, claimant to the Portuguese throne, without Elizabeth's permission. Essex later repaired his relationship with the Queen, and on 22 July 1591, he received a patent to lead an army comprising 4,000 men to France to support King Henry of Navarre. From November 1591, Essex joined Henry in an attempt to besiege Rouen. Essex challenged the French admiral Duke of Villars to single combat, which earned him a reprimand from Elizabeth as it was improper for "a noble man and a peer of this realm by birth" to challenge "a mere rebel". After a lengthy siege, in which Essex's brother Walter was killed, Essex and Henry were forced to retreat. Essex returned to the English court on 14 January 1592.
In June and July 1596, he distinguished himself by the capture of Cádiz. During the Islands Voyage expedition to the Azores in 1597, with Raleigh as his second-in-command, he defied the Queen's orders, pursuing the Spanish treasure fleet without first defeating the Spanish battle fleet.
When the Third Spanish Armada first appeared off the English coast in October 1597, the English fleet was far out to sea, with the coast almost undefended, and panic ensued. This further damaged the relationship between the Queen and Essex, even though he was initially given full command of the English fleet when he reached England a few days later. However, a storm dispersed the Spanish fleet. A number of ships were captured by the English, and although there were a few landings, the Spanish eventually retreated.
Ireland
From 1593, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, led a confederacy of Irish lords in resistance to the Tudor conquest of Ireland. The confederacy's greatest victory came at the Battle of the Yellow Ford in August 1598, which ignited rebellion throughout all Ireland. The military situation was highly distressing to Elizabeth and the English Privy Council. Following the deaths of Lord Deputy Thomas Burgh and Marshal Henry Bagenal, there was no clear leader of the English-led Irish administration.