The Red Turban invasions of Goryeo occurred in the 14th century, when the Red Turban Army (In Korean history they are recorded as the Honggeonjeok (“Red Turban Bandits”), a peasant rebel force that arose in the Zhejiang area region against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. One branch of this movement advanced through northern China and Liaodong and invaded the Korean Peninsula twice, in 1359 (8th year of King Gongmin) and 1361 (10th year of King Gongmin).
Background The Mongol Empire entered history when Genghis Khan unified the Mongols in 1206. Throughout the 13th century it expanded relentlessly and came to dominate much of Eurasia. In 1234, the Mongols destroyed the Jin dynasty and took control of North China.
The Mongol invasions of Korea lasted from 1231 to 1259, and Goryeo capitulated to the Mongol empire under an agreement that Korea's local customs would be respected, and Korea became a "son-in-law state" from 1270 until 1356. In the mid-14th century, when the Yuan dynasty was beginning to crumble due to the Red Turban Rebellion, Gongmin reformed the Korean government, abolished Mongolian military outposts, purged pro-Yuan sentiments, and regained lost northern territories. The Red Turbans attacked Goryeo most likely because of military exigency.
In 1276, they captured Hangzhou, the capital of the Southern Song dynasty. By the late 13th century, they controlled the entire Chinese mainland as well as Manchuria. To the west their empire extended as far as present-day Iran and Russia, forming one of the largest empires in history. However, during the 14th century the empire began to weaken. Internal divisions among the Mongol ruling class and contradictions inherent in ruling over many non-Mongol peoples gradually undermined their authority. From the 1340s onward, natural disasters occurred almost every year. Many Chinese people began to believe that the Mandate of Heaven had abandoned the Yuan dynasty. Popular dissatisfaction was particularly strong in southern China.
In this region the White Lotus Society, a millenarian religious movement, spread widely among suffering peasants. In 1344, a massive flood changed the course of the Yellow River. Because the Yuan Dynasty depended on grain shipments from the south via the Grand Canal to supply the capital Dadu, it launched a massive river-repair project. Nearly 200,000 laborers were mobilized from across the empire. Although the project was completed successfully within a year, the resentment of the laborers continued to grow and eventually turned into a nationwide rebellion. By the 1350s, the scattered White Lotus believers organized themselves into armed rebel groups. The Red Turban Army, kown for woring red headscarves and red clothing, first rose in 1351, led by Liu Futong and others, calling for the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty. They supported Han Shantong, a religious leader of the White Lotus movement, and later his son Han Lin’er, claiming he was a descendant of Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty. In 1355 they established a regime named Song and adopted the era name Longfeng.
Prelude However, the Red Turban forces were not a unified movement. Various rebel groups arose across China with different leaders, each fighting against the Yuan government. One such faction would eventually produce Zhu Yuanzhang, who later founded the Ming dynasty. Under the banner of “expelling the barbarians and restoring Chinese rule,” the Red Turbans expanded northward from southern China. Fierce battles erupted between them and Yuan government forces across northern China.
In 1354, the Yuan court even requested military aid from Goryeo. Goryeo dispatched over 2,000 troops and about 40 generals, including Yu Tak and Yeom Jesin, to fight the rebels. To prepare for instability on the continent, Goryeo also strengthened defenses along its northwestern frontier.
In 1354, the Red Turbans crossed the Yellow River. One group led by Guan Xiansheng and Po Touban attacked Dadu, the Yuan capital, in 1358. When they failed to capture it, they turned northeast in 1359, capturing Shangdu (the secondary Yuan capital) and later Liaoyang in Liaodong. As warfare engulfed Liaodong, many refugees fled into Goryeo. The Red Turbans sent a letter to Goryeo explaining their cause and attempting both persuasion and intimidation:
Goryeo gave no response, instead strengthening its internal defenses.
First Red Turban invasion In 1359 (the 8th year of King Gongmin's reign), the Red Turban Army was sweeping through the Liaodong region centered around Liaoyang. The Yuan court also organized a punitive force to engage in large-scale battles with the Red Turbans and even managed to recapture Liaoyang. Consequently, the Red Turbans turned south and invaded the Korean Peninsula.
For strategic reasons, the Red Turbans at the time perceived Goryeo as an ally of the Yuan Dynasty. Therefore, they adopted a strategy of stabilizing Liaodong, which lay behind Goryeo, by attacking the country. Another reason is that the Red Turbans regarded Goryeo as a refuge. Indeed, amidst the tense military standoff in Liaodong, Goryeo was seen by the Red Turbans as a good sanctuary.
The crossing of the Yalu River by over 3,000 Red Turbans began in November of that year, followed by plunder and their return, served as the signal. Soon after, in December, 40,000 Red Turbans led by Mao Jujing crossed the frozen Yalu River and captured Uiju, subsequently capturing Jeongju and Inju the very next day. The Red Turbans' southward advance continued. They managed to occupy Seogyeong just 20 days after crossing the Yalu River. Seogyeong was a place that held great significance in political and military aspects from the early days of Goryeo's founding, serving as Goryeo's second capital.
The Goryeo army responded swiftly. In the early stages of the Red Turban invasion, figures close to King Gongmin, such as Gyeong Bok-heung and An U, were dispatched to the front. However, unable to withstand the fierce momentum of the Red Turban forces, they were pushed back all the way to Seogyeong. Goryeo immediately launched a nationwide response, including the massive mobilization of troops and horses. Meanwhile, preparations for evacuation were also being made in Gaeseong.
Counterattack The Goryeo army immediately launched a counterattack. In January 1360 (the 9th year of King Gongmin), after a fierce battle in which both armies suffered thousands of casualties, the Goryeo army achieved the victory of recapturing Seogyeong just 20 days after it had been lost. Subsequently, the Goryeo army, led by An U and Yi Bang-sil, inflicted major defeats on the Red Turban Army at Hamjong and Seoncheon-gun.
The results of the battle at Hamjong are described in the "History of Goryeo" as follows:
Even after this battle, it took about two more months to completely drive out the Red Turbans. The Red Turbans inflicted devastating damage on the northwestern region even as they retreated. The Goryeo army no longer pursued the Red Turbans who had crossed the Yalu River and retreated. The following is a record of King Gongmin expressing his joy of victory at a banquet held in April of that year for his ministers who had returned victorious from war:
Although ultimately repelled, the havoc caused by the Red Turbans on Goryeo was substantial.
Second Red Turban invasion Although the Red Turbans initially retreated across the Yalu River, their power was not completely eradicated. Having withdrawn to the Liaodong region, they continued to intermittently enter and plunder the northwestern provinces of Goryeo. Goryeo dispatched officials such as Yi Gong-su and Ju Sa-chung to the Yuan Dynasty to assess the situation on the continent, but they were always forced to return because their path was blocked in Shenyang. Through this, the Goryeo court realized that the Red Turbans who had invaded the Korean Peninsula were part of a larger rebel force spread throughout the Mongol Empire. Consequently, Goryeo sought to restore relations with the Yuan, which had become strained since the anti-Yuan reforms of 1356 (the 5th year of King Gongmin's reign), in order to jointly counter the Red Turbans. As part of these measures, they dispatched envoys to the Yuan to express their friendly intentions and also reassigned officials to the Expeditionary Province of the Eastern Expedition. In addition, to strengthen domestic defenses, he inspected the military status of each province and established a system to rapidly mobilize troops, and also requisitioned horses from the ruling class.
Southern Evacuation to Bokju In October 1361, a large Red Turban force—numbering over 100,000 troops and led by figures such as Pan Cheng, Sha Liu, Guan Xiansheng, and Zhu Yuanshuai—invaded Goryeo after being cut off from retreat routes in Hebei due to Yuan military pressure. Advancing rapidly, they captured a series of fortresses and approached Gaegyeong, passing through Jaryeong Pass (Jeollyeongchae) in mid-November and occupying the capital by late November. Under these circumstances, in December 1361, King Gongmin fled the capital to Bokju, passing through Gwangju and Chungju.
Regarding the urgent situation at the time, the "History of Goryeo" described it as follows:
Five days after King Gongmin left Gaegyeong, the Red Turbans finally captured the capital. While staying in Gaegyeong thereafter, the Red Turban army committed repeated acts of brutality, including burning the royal palace of Manwoldae, and killing and roasting civilian men and women to eat, or roasting and eating the breasts of pregnant women. After capturing Gaegyeong, the enemy encamped and remained there for two months, slaughtering horses and cattle to build fortifications with their hides and then spraying water to create ice sheets to prevent Goryeo troops from climbing over them.
King Gongmin and the Goryeo court designated Bokju, or present-day Andong, as their place of refuge and as a temporary capital. Bokju was chosen because its basin topography provided good defense against the Red Turbans from the north and Wokou from the south; it was a key transportation hub in Gyeongsang Province rich in resources; and it was a place with deep ties to the royal family and high-ranking Goryeo officials, such as Hong Eon-bak. It is said that while staying in Bokju, King Gongmin frequently visited Yeonghoru to observe military training, and the plaque of Yeonghoru, said to have been personally written by the king, still remains to this day.
Counteroffensive Gongmin issued orders to prepare a counteroffensive. He appointed Jeong Se-un as Commander-in-Chief and recruited royalist troops from all over the country. Furthermore, troops were raised in various regions within the nation and, in the first month of 1362, gathered a force of about 200,000 troops at Cheonsusa Temple in the eastern outskirts (in present-day Paju). Having completed preparations for the counterattack, the 200,000-strong Goryeo army encamped on the outskirts of Gaegyeong in January of the following year, 1362 (the 11th year of King Gongmin's reign). Generals such as An U, Yi Bang-sil, Kim Deuk-bae, Choe Yeong, and Yi Seong-gye took part in the campaign to besiege the capital.
The battle, which began at dawn on January 18, 1362 was fierce. Goryeo forces took advantage of heavy snowfall that weakened the enemy’s defenses, and launched a full-scale assault from all sides. In the ensuing battle, the Red Turbans suffered devastating losses, including the deaths of key leaders such as Sha Liu and Guan Xiansheng, and about 100,000 casualties. The remaining forces fled in disarray across the Yalu River. As a result, King Gongmin, who had taken refuge in Bokju, was able to return to Gaegyeong after approximately fifty days.
Regarding the results, the History of Goryeo records:
With this, the second invasion by the Red Turbans came to an end.
Aftermath