The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when the political order of the Jin dynasty (266–420) in northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. Most of these states were founded by the "Five Barbarians" – Xiongnu, Xianbei, Di, Jie, Qiang – non-Han peoples from northern and western China who launched the rebellions that toppled the Jin court in Luoyang in 311 and Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an) in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty (266–316). Some of these peoples, notably the Xiongnu of Shanxi and the Di of Guanzhong, had lived in China for generations and were highly sinicized. Others such as the Tuoba and Murong Xianbei tribes migrated from China's periphery into Central Plains in the ensuing decades to compete for political supremacy over northern China. All of these states took on Han-style dynastic names and most claimed as having the Mandate of Heaven to rule all of China. They frequently fought against one another and the Jin, which continued to rule southern China from Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing) as the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420).
Due to fierce competition among the states and internal political instability, the kingdoms of this era were mostly short-lived. For seven years from 376 to 383, the Former Qin unified all of northern and northwest China and Sichuan. The Former Qin's quest to conquer southern China was stopped by the Eastern Jin at the Battle of Fei River (in modern-day central Anhui), after which the Former Qin splintered and northern China experienced even greater political fragmentation, with as many as nine states co-existing in the north in 400. This period ended with the unification of northern China in 439 by the Northern Wei, a dynasty established by the Xianbei Tuoba clan, and the history of northern China entered the Northern Dynasties period.
The Sixteen Kingdoms marked the first time in the imperial era of Chinese history that non-Han rulers governed a vast portion of the Chinese heartland and ruled as Emperor of China. Each of the northern kingdoms, regardless of the ethnicity of its founders and rulers, was multi-ethnic in character, and their rulers were sinicized to varying degrees, adopting a diversity of approaches to governance that drew on different mixes of Han and non-Han institutions and customs. The challenges that these rulers confronted — how to govern both Han and non-Han peoples, the degree to which they should adopt Chinese culture, and how in doing so they redefined what it meant to be Chinese — would persist through the subsequent Northern and Southern dynasties period, from which emerged the Sui and Tang dynasties with their more inclusive governance, multi-ethnic character and cosmopolitan culture.
The fall of the Western Jin dynasty amidst the rise of non-Han regimes in northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period resembles the fall of the Western Roman Empire amidst invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes in Europe, which also occurred in the 4th to 5th centuries. While the division of Roman empire in 395 AD became permanent, China was able to reunify by integrating the barbarians from the Sixteen Kingdoms era into government and society. The broader dynamic of non-Chinese rulers adapting their rule to China would recur with the Liao, Jin (1115–1234), Yuan and Qing dynasties and continue to shape Chinese history into the early 20th century.
Period name and constituent kingdoms The term "Sixteen Kingdoms" was first used by the 6th-century historian Cui Hong in the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a compilation of available records from the states that appeared during the period. These were the five Liangs (Former, Later, Northern, Southern and Western), four Yans (Former, Later, Northern, and Southern), three Qins (Former, Later and Western), two Zhaos (Han/Former and Later), Cheng-Han and Xia.
Several other states from this period Cui Hong did not include Duan Qi, Western Yan, Ran Wei, Zhai Wei, Chouchi, and Tuyuhun. Nor did he include the Dai whose successor the Northern Wei, unified northern China and became the first of the Northern dynasties. The history of the Dai and Northern Wei is found in a later record, the Book of Wei.
Also excluded from the historiography are the short-lived regimes that broke away from the Eastern Jin after the dynasty was reconstituted in southern China. Regimes such as Huan Chu and Qiao Shu emerged from political turmoil within the Eastern Jin court.
The Sixteen Kingdoms #Regime NamePeriodDur.(yrs)Ethnicityof RulersFounderCapital(s)Ended byLocationOther Rulers1Cheng-Han成→漢304–34743Di(Ba)Li Xiong 李雄Temple: Taizong 太宗Posthumous: Emperor Wu 武帝Chengdu (304–347)(Chengdu, Sichuan)Eastern Jin(under Huan Wen)Modern Sichuan and Chongqing in southwestern China; the only Sixteen Kingdom based in the southwestLi Te 李特 (303)Li Liu 李流 (303)Li Ban 李班 (334, ~5 months)Li Qi 李期 (334–338)Li Shou 李壽 (338–343)Li Shi 李勢 (343–347)2Han (Former Zhao)漢→趙 / 前趙304–32925Xiongnu(Five Divisions)Liu Yuan 劉淵Temple: Gaozu 高祖Posthumous: Emperor Guangwen 光文帝Lishi (304–308)(Lishi, Lüliang, Shanxi)Puzi (308–309)(Xiangning, Linfen, Shanxi)Pingyang (309–319)(Linfen, Shanxi)Chang'an (319–329)(Xi'an, Shaanxi)Later ZhaoModern Shanxi, Shaanxi, and parts of Henan and Gansu in north-central ChinaLiu He 劉和 (310, 7 days)Liu Cong 劉聰 (310–318)Liu Can 劉粲 (318, ~1 month)Liu Yao 劉曜 (318–329)Liu Xi 劉熙 (329, months)3Zhao (Later)後趙319–35132JieShi Le 石勒Temple: Gaozu 高祖Posthumous: Emperor Ming 明帝Xiangguo (319–335)(Xingtai, Hebei)Ye (335–351)(Linzhang, Handan, Hebei)Ran WeiMost of northern China including modern Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and parts of Anhui, Jiangsu, Liaoning, and GansuShi Hong 石弘 (333–334)Shi Hu 石虎 (334–349)Shi Shi 石世 (349, 33 days)Shi Zun 石遵 (349, ~183 days)Shi Jian 石鑒 (349–350, ~103 days)Shi Zhi 石祗 (350–351)4Liang (Former)前涼301–37675Han ChineseZhang Gui 張軌Posthumous: Duke Wu 武公Guzang (301–376)(Wuwei, Gansu)Former QinModern Gansu and parts of Ningxia and Xinjiang in northwestern China; extended influence into the Western RegionsZhang Shi 張寔 (314–320)Zhang Mao 張茂 (320–324)Zhang Jun 張駿 (324–346)Zhang Chonghua 張重華 (346–353)Zhang Yaoling 張曜靈 (353, deposed)Zhang Zuo 張祚 (353–355)Zhang Xuanjing 張玄靚 (355–363)Zhang Tianxi 張天錫 (363–376)5Yan (Former)前燕337–37033Xianbei(Murong)Murong Huang 慕容皝Temple: Taizu 太祖Posthumous: Emperor Wenming 文明帝Longcheng (337–350)(Chaoyang, Liaoning)Ji (350–357)(Beijing)Ye (357–370)(Linzhang, Handan, Hebei)Former QinModern Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Shanxi in northeastern and north-central ChinaMurong Jun 慕容儁 (348–360)Murong Wei 慕容暐 (360–370)6Qin (Former)前秦351–39443Di (Lüeyang)Fu Jiàn 苻健Temple: Shizu 世祖Posthumous: Emperor Jingming 景明帝Chang'an (351–385)(Xi'an, Shaanxi)Jinyang (385–386)(Taiyuan, Shanxi)Nan'an (386–394)(near Longxi, Gansu)Huangzhong (394)(Ledu, Haidong, Qinghai)Later Qin / Western QinAt its peak (376–383), all of northern China from modern Liaoning to Xinjiang and south into Sichuan; the only Sixteen Kingdom to unify the entire northFu Sheng 苻生 (355–357)Fu Jiān 苻堅 (357–385)Fu Pi 苻丕 (385–386)Fu Deng 苻登 (386–394)Fu Chong 苻崇 (394, months)7Yan (Later)後燕384–40925Xianbei(Murong)Murong Chui 慕容垂Temple: Shizu 世祖Posthumous: Emperor Chengwu 成武帝Zhongshan (384–397)(Dingzhou, Hebei)Longcheng (397–409)(Chaoyang, Liaoning)Northern YanModern Hebei, Liaoning, Shandong, and Henan in northeastern China; after 397, reduced to LiaoningMurong Bao 慕容寶 (396–398)Lan Han 蘭汗 (398, usurper, ~3 months)Murong Sheng 慕容盛 (398–401)Murong Xi 慕容熙 (401–407)8Qin (Later)後秦384–41733Qiang (Shaodang)Yao Chang 姚萇Temple: Taizu 太祖Posthumous: Emperor Wuzhao 武昭帝Chang'an (386–417)(Xi'an, Shaanxi)Eastern Jin(under Liu Yu)Modern Shaanxi, Henan, Gansu, and parts of Sichuan in central and northwestern ChinaYao Xing 姚興 (394–416)Yao Hong 姚泓 (416–417)9Qin (Western)西秦385–400;409–43137Xianbei(Qifu)Qifu Guoren 乞伏國仁Posthumous: Prince Xuanlie 宣烈王Yongcheng (385–388)(near Lanzhou, Gansu)Jincheng (388–395)(Lanzhou, Gansu)Yuanchuan (395–400)(near Linxia, Gansu)Dujianshan (409–412)(near Lintan, Gansu)Tanjiao (412–414)(near Linxia, Gansu)Fuhan (414–430)(near Linxia, Gansu)Nan'an (430–431)(near Longxi, Gansu)XiaModern eastern Gansu and southeastern Qinghai in northwestern ChinaQifu Gangui 乞伏乾歸 (388–400; 409–412)Qifu Chipan 乞伏熾磐 (412–428)Qifu Mumo 乞伏暮末 (428–431)10Liang (Later)後涼386–40317Di (Lüeyang)Lü Guang 呂光Posthumous: Yiwu 懿武 (Heavenly King)Guzang (386–403)(Wuwei, Gansu)Later QinModern central Gansu in northwestern China; centred on the Hexi CorridorLü Shao 呂紹 (399, days)Lü Zuan 呂纂 (399–401)Lü Long 呂隆 (401–403)11Liang (Southern)南涼397–41417Xianbei(Tufa)Tufa Wugu 禿髮烏孤Posthumous: Prince Wu 武王Lianchuan (397–399)(near Hualong, Qinghai)Ledu (399–402)(Ledu, Haidong, Qinghai)Xiping (402–406)(Xining, Qinghai)Guzang (406–410)(Wuwei, Gansu)Ledu (410–414)(Ledu, Haidong, Qinghai)Western QinModern eastern Qinghai and central Gansu in northwestern ChinaTufa Lilugu 禿髮利鹿孤 (399–402)Tufa Rutan 禿髮傉檀 (402–414)12Liang (Northern)北涼397–43942Xiongnu(Lushuihu)Duan Ye 段業 (founder, titular)Deposed by:Juqu Mengxun 沮渠蒙遜Temple: Taizu 太祖Posthumous: Prince Wuxuan 武宣王Zhangye (397–439)(Zhangye, Gansu)Northern WeiModern central and western Gansu in northwestern China; the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms to fallJuqu Mujian 沮渠牧犍 (433–439)13Yan (Southern)南燕398–41012Xianbei(Murong)Murong De 慕容德Temple: Shizong 世宗Posthumous: Emperor Xianwu 獻武帝Huatai (398–399)(near Cao, Heze, Shandong)Guanggu (399–410)(Qingzhou, Weifang, Shandong)Eastern Jin(under Liu Yu)Modern Shandong province in eastern ChinaMurong Chao 慕容超 (405–410)14Liang (Western)西涼400–42121Han ChineseLi Gao 李暠Temple: Taizu 太祖Posthumous: Prince Wuzhao 武昭王Dunhuang (400–405)(Dunhuang, Gansu)Jiuquan (405–421)(Jiuquan, Gansu)Northern LiangModern western Gansu in northwestern China; centred on the western end of the Hexi CorridorLi Xin 李歆 (417–420)Li Xun 李恂 (420–421)15Yan (Northern)北燕407–43629Goguryeo / Han ChineseGao Yun 高雲Posthumous: Emperor Huiyi 惠懿帝Longcheng (407–436)(Chaoyang, Liaoning)Northern WeiModern western Liaoning in northeastern ChinaFeng Ba 馮跋 (409–430)Feng Hong 馮弘 (430–436)16Xia夏407–43124Xiongnu(Tiefu)Helian Bobo 赫連勃勃Temple: Shizu 世祖Posthumous: Emperor Wulie 武烈帝Tongwancheng (407–428)(Jingbian, Yulin, Shaanxi)Shanggui (428–431)(Tianshui, Gansu)Northern WeiModern northern Shaanxi, Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia, and later parts of Gansu in north-central ChinaHelian Chang 赫連昌 (425–428)Helian Ding 赫連定 (428–431)
Other breakaway regimes of the period Regime NamePeriodDur.(yrs)Ethnicityof RulersFounderCapital(s)Ended byLocationOther Rulers1Dai代310–37666Xianbei(Tuoba)Tuoba Yilu 拓跋猗盧Posthumous: Emperor Mu 穆帝Shengle (310–376)(Horinger, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia)Former QinModern central Inner Mongolia and northern Shanxi.Tuoba Pugen 拓跋普根 (316)Tuoba Yulü 拓跋鬱律 (316–321)Tuoba Heru 拓跋賀傉 (321–325)Tuoba Hena 拓跋紇那 (325–329; 335–337)Tuoba Yihuai 拓跋翳槐 (329–335; 337–338)Tuoba Shiyijian 拓跋什翼犍 (338–376)2Wei (Ran)冉魏350–3522Han ChineseRan Min 冉閔Posthumous: Wudao Heavenly King 武悼天王Ye (350–352)(Linzhang, Handan, Hebei)Former YanModern southern Hebei and northern Henan province—3Yan (Western)西燕384–39410Xianbei(Murong)Murong Hong 慕容泓Posthumous: Prince Wei 威王Chang'an (384–386)(Xi'an, Shaanxi)Various (386–389)Changzi (389–394)(Changzi, Changzhi, Shanxi)Later YanShanxi provinceMurong Chong 慕容沖 (384–386)Duan Sui 段隨 (386, days)Murong Yi 慕容顗 (386, ~1 month)Murong Yao 慕容瑤 (386, days)Murong Zhong 慕容忠 (386)Murong Yong 慕容永 (386–394)4Wei (Zhai)翟魏388–3924DinglingZhai Liao 翟遼Huatai (388–392)(near Hua, Anyang, Henan)Later YanModern northeastern Henan and southwestern Shandong in eastern ChinaZhai Zhao 翟釗 (391–392)5Chouchi仇池296–371;385–443inter-mittentDi