Óláfr Guðrøðarson (died 1237) (Scottish Gaelic: Amhlaibh Dubh; English: Olafr Godredsson), also known as Olaf the Black, was a thirteenth-century King of the Isles, and a member of the Crovan dynasty. He was a son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of the Isles and Fionnghuala Nic Lochlainn. Óláfr was a younger son of his father; Óláfr's elder brother, Rǫgnvaldr, probably had a different mother. According to the Chronicle of Mann, Guðrøðr appointed Óláfr as heir since he had been born "in lawful wedlock". Whether or not this is the case, after Guðrøðr's death in 1187 the Islesmen instead appointed Rǫgnvaldr as king, as he was a capable adult and Óláfr was a mere child. Rǫgnvaldr ruled the island-kingdom for almost forty years, during which time the half-brothers vied for the kingship.
Óláfr appears to have held authority on the island of Lewis and Harris. At some point, Óláfr appears to have confronted Rǫgnvaldr for a larger stake in the kingdom, after which Rǫgnvaldr had him seized and imprisoned by William the Lion, King of Scotland. Upon his release in 1214/1215, Óláfr is stated to have undertaken a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, after which the half-brothers were reconciled, and Rǫgnvaldr had Óláfr married to Lauon, the sister of his own wife. In what appears to have been a politically motivated maneuver, Óláfr had his marriage declared null by Reginald, Bishop of the Isles, and proceeded to marry Cairistíona, a daughter of Fearchar, Earl of Ross. Whilst Lauon appears to have been a member of Clann Somhairle, a kindred led by Ruaidhrí mac Raghnaill, a man closely aligned with Rǫgnvaldr and opposed to the Scottish Crown, Cairistíona was the daughter of a rising Scottish magnate.
In 1223, Óláfr's marital actions are stated to have precipitated Rǫgnvaldr's son, Guðrøðr Dond, to attack Óláfr on Lewis and Harris, driving him into Ross to the safety of his father-in-law. Together with Páll Bálkason, Óláfr later defeated Guðrøðr Dond on Skye. The following year, Óláfr confronted Rǫgnvaldr on Mann, and the two partitioned of the kingdom between themselves. One of Rǫgnvaldr's allied against Óláfr was Alan fitz Roland, Lord of Galloway, who is recorded to have campaigned in the Isles against Óláfr. There is reason to suspect that Óláfr was conversely aligned with Alan's opponent in Ireland, Hugh de Lacy, Earl of Ulster. In 1226, Rǫgnvaldr and Alan orchestrated the marriage of a daughter of Rǫgnvaldr to Alan's bastard son, Thomas, a union that led the Islesmen to depose Rǫgnvaldr in favour of Óláfr. In 1229, Rǫgnvaldr invaded Mann, and was killed in battle against Óláfr.
In 1230, Óláfr was forced from his kingdom to Norway by Alan and members of Clann Somhairle. In response to this latest bout of warfare in the Isles, Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway decided to send a royal fleet into the Isles, under the command of Óspakr, an apparent member of Clann Somhairle. When Óspakr was slain early in the campaign, Óláfr took control of the fleet and secured himself on Mann. At this point, the kingdom appears to have been partitioned between him and Guðrøðr Dond, with the latter ruling the Hebridean portion and Óláfr ruling Mann itself. In 1231, after the Norwegian fleet left Isles, Guðrøðr Dond was slain, and Óláfr ruled the whole Kingdom of the Isles peacefully, until his death in 1237. Óláfr's restoration was seen as a success by the Norwegians, and likely favourably viewed by the Scots as well. Óláfr was succeeded by his son, Haraldr. In all, three of Óláfr's sons ruled the Crovan dynasty's island-kingdom—the last of which, Magnús, was also the last of the dynasty to rule.
Uncertain inheritance
Óláfr was a member of the Crovan dynasty,McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1. and a son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of Dublin and the Isles.McDonald (2019) p. ix tab. 1; Oram (2011) p. xvi tab. 5; McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1; Power (2005) p. 34 tab.; Brown, M (2004) p. 77 tab. 4.1; MacLeod (2002) p. 275 tab.; Sellar (2000) p. 192 tab. i; McDonald (1997) p. 259 tab.; Duncan; Brown (1956–1957) p. 200 tab. ii; Anderson (1922) p. 467 n. 2 tab. Óláfr's mother was Fionnghuala Nic Lochlainn.McDonald (2019) p. ix tab. 1; Oram (2011) p. xvi tab. 5; McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1. Guðrøðr had several other children: Affrica,McDonald (2019) p. ix tab. 1; McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1; Power (2005) p. 34 tab.; Sellar (2000) p. 192 tab. i; Anderson (1922) p. 467 n. 2 tab. Rǫgnvaldr,McDonald (2019) p. ix tab. 1; Oram (2011) p. xvi tab. 5; McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1; Williams, G (2007) p. 141 ill. 14; Power (2005) p. 34 tab.; Brown, M (2004) p. 77 tab. 4.1; MacLeod (2002) p. 275 tab.; Sellar (2000) p. 192 tab. i; McDonald (1997) p. 259 tab.; Duncan; Brown (1956–1957) p. 200 tab. ii; Anderson (1922) p. 467 n. 2 tab. and Ívarr. Other possible children include Ruaidhrí, and a daughter whose name is unknown.Power (2005) p. 34 tab.; Anderson (1922) p. 467 n. 2 tab. According to the thirteenth-century Chronicle of Mann, Óláfr's mother was Fionnghuala Nic Lochlainn, granddaughter of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, High King of Ireland.McDonald (2019) p. 60; Flanagan (2010) p. 195; McDonald (2007b) pp. 71–72; Flanagan (1989) p. 103; Anderson (1922) pp. 296–297; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 76–77. She was probably a daughter of Muirchertach's son, Niall Mac Lochlainn, King of Cineál Eoghain.McDonald (2019) p. 60; Flanagan (2010) p. 195; Martin (2008) p. 135; McDonald (2007a) p. 52; McDonald (2007b) p. 71; Pollock (2005) p. 16 n. 76; Flanagan (1989) p. 103; Anderson (1922) p. 297 n. 1. Although Óláfr's parentage is known, the maternal ancestry of Rǫgnvaldr is less certain. She may have been Sadbh,McDonald (2019) p. ix tab. 1; McDonald (2007b) p. 27 tab. 1. an Irishwoman identified as his mother by a contemporary Gaelic praise poem.McDonald (2019) pp. 77–78; Wadden (2014) p. 33; McDonald (2008) p. 134; McDonald (2007b) pp. 72–73; Duffy (2004). The likelihood that Rǫgnvaldr and Óláfr had different mothers may well explain the intense conflict between the two men in the years that followed.McDonald (2019) pp. 78–79; McDonald (2007b) p. 73.
The chronicle reveals that the marriage between Guðrøðr and Fionnghuala was formalised in 1176/1177, under the auspices of a visiting papal legate.McDonald (2019) p. 64; McDonald (2016) p. 342; Beuermann (2014) p. 93, 93 n. 45; Wadden (2014) pp. 32–33; Downham (2013) p. 172, 172 n. 86; Flanagan (2010) p. 195, 195 n. 123; McDonald (2008) p. 134; Duffy (2007) p. 4; McDonald (2007a) p. 52; McDonald (2007b) pp. 68, 71, 171, 185; Oram (2000) p. 109 n. 24; Watt (2000) p. 24; McDonald (1997) pp. 215–216; Duffy (1993) p. 58; Duffy (1992) p. 127 n. 166; Flanagan (1989) p. 103; Power (1986) p. 130; Flanagan (1977) p. 59; Anderson (1922) pp. 296–297; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 76–77; Haddan; Stubbs (1873) p. 247. Before Guðrøðr's death in 1187, the chronicle claims that he left instructions for Óláfr to succeed to the kingship since the latter had been born "in lawful wedlock".McDonald (2019) pp. 24, 66, 77; Beuermann (2014) p. 87; Oram (2011) pp. 156, 169; Flanagan (2010) p. 195 n. 123; McDonald (2007b) pp. 70–71, 94, 170; Duffy (2004); Broderick (2003); Oram (2000) p. 105; Anderson (1922) pp. 313–314; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 78–79. This statement could indicate that Óláfr was born just before or immediately after his parents' marriage.McDonald (2019) p. 77; McDonald (2007b) p. 71. The chronicle certainly states that Óláfr was born before the legate formalised his parents' marriage, suggesting that the union existed for some time prior.Wadden (2014) p. 32. This source, however, gives conflicting dates for Óláfr's birth: 1173 and 1177. Specifically, in its account of his parents marriage, the chronicle states that Óláfr was three years old;McDonald (2019) p. 64; Wadden (2014) p. 32; Flanagan (2010) p. 195 n. 123; McDonald (2007b) pp. 71–72; Oram (2000) pp. 105, 109 n. 24; Anderson (1922) pp. 296–297, 313 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 76–77. and in its account of his father's death, Óláfr is said to have been only ten.McDonald (2019) pp. 66, 77; Flanagan (2010) p. 195 n. 123; McDonald (2007b) pp. 71–72; Anderson (1922) p. 313, 313 n. 6; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 78–79.
If the chronicle's account of Óláfr's stake in the kingship is to be believed, it could indicate that Guðrøðr attempted to legitimise the royal succession through his canonical marriage to Fionnghuala.Flanagan (2010) p. 195 n. 123; McDonald (2007b) p. 171. However, this source appears to date to the reign of Óláfr's son, Magnús,McDonald (2019) pp. 9, 92; Crawford, DKE (2016) p. 103; Beuermann (2010) pp. 102, 104; McDonald (2007b) pp. 99–100. and there is reason to suspect that it source was compiled in the context of an attempt to legitimise Óláfr's branch of the Crovan dynasty over that of Rǫgnvaldr. As such, the chronicle appears to be biased towards Óláfr's line,McDonald (2019) pp. 25, 64, 71, 92–93; Oram (2013) ch. 4; Oram; Adderley (2010) p. 128; McDonald (2007b) pp. 99–100. and its account of Guðrøðr's succession may not objective.McDonald (2007b) pp. 99–100. Whether the chronicle is accurate in its account of the succession is uncertain,Oram (2013) ch. 4; Oram (2011) p. 156; McDonald (2007b) p. 94; Oram (2000) p. 105. as the Islesmen are stated to have chosen Rǫgnvaldr to rule instead, because unlike Óláfr, who was only a child at the time, Rǫgnvaldr was a hardy young man fully capable to reign as king.McDonald (2019) pp. 24, 46, 48, 66, 77; Oram (2011) pp. 156, 169; Flanagan (2010) p. 195 n. 123; McDonald (2007b) pp. 70–71; Duffy (2004); Oram (2000) pp. 105, 124; McDonald (1997) p. 85; Williams, DGE (1997) p. 260; Anderson (1922) pp. 313–314; Munch; Goss (1874a) pp. 78–79. Furthermore, the fact that Rǫgnvaldr appears to have held power in the Hebrides at the time of Guðrøðr's death could indicate that it was Rǫgnvaldr who had been the acknowledged heir.McDonald (2007b) p. 94; Oram (2000) p. 105. Another possibility, suggested by the chronicle and latter correspondence between Óláfr and the English Crown, is that Rǫgnvaldr's tenure had been originally intended as temporary wardship until Óláfr was able to reign himself.Oram (2013) ch. 4; Simpson; Galbraith (n.d.) p. 136 § 9; Document 1/16/1 (n.d.).
Hebridean magnate