The Atlantic campaign of 1806 was one of the most important and complex naval campaigns of the post-Trafalgar Napoleonic Wars. Seeking to take advantage of the withdrawal of British forces from the Atlantic in the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar, Emperor Napoleon ordered two battle squadrons to sea from the fleet stationed at Brest, during December 1805.Clowes, p. 184 Escaping deep into the Atlantic, these squadrons succeeded in disrupting British convoys, evading pursuit by British battle squadrons and reinforcing the French garrison at Santo Domingo. The period of French success was brief: on 6 February 1806 one of the squadrons, under Vice-admiral Corentin Urbain de Leissègues, was intercepted by a British squadron at the Battle of San Domingo and destroyed, losing all five of its ships of the line.
The second French squadron, under Vice-admiral Jean-Baptiste Phillibert Willaumez, cruised in the South Atlantic and the Caribbean during the spring and summer of 1806, conducting several successful raids on British islands in the West Indies. His ability to affect British trade was hampered by the deployment of British squadrons against him and the disobedience of Captain Jérôme Bonaparte, the Emperor's brother.Clowes, p. 194 On 18 August an Atlantic hurricane dispersed his ships, causing severe damage and forcing them to take shelter in friendly or neutral harbours in the Americas. Waiting British ships destroyed one vessel, and several others were so badly damaged that they never sailed again, the four survivors limping back to France individually over the next two years.Woodman, p. 218 The various British squadrons deployed against him failed to catch Willaumez, but their presence had limited his ability to raid British trade routes.Gardiner, The Victory of Seapower, p. 17
The campaign included a number of subsidiary operations by both British and French ships, some taking advantage of the campaign to conduct smaller operations while the main enemy forces were distracted, others operating as diversions to the principal campaign to attack undefended areas or lure British ships away from the principal French squadrons. Among these operations was the return of the squadron under Counter-admiral Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois from the Indian Ocean, which was captured at the action of 13 March 1806;Adkins, p. 191 the raiding cruises of L'Hermite's expedition and Lamellerie's expedition, which captured a number of merchant ships but each lost a frigate breaking through the blockade of the French coast;Gardiner, The Victory of Seapower, p. 18 and the destruction of a convoy of seven French ships destined with supplies for the French West Indies at the action of 25 September 1806.Woodman, p. 227
French squadrons
Admiral Leissègues' squadron Both of the principal French squadrons departed Brest on 13 December, remaining together for the first two days before dividing in pursuit of separate British merchant convoys on 15 December. The squadron under Leissègues clashed with the convoy's escort, before breaking off and sailing south for the French Caribbean, where Leissègues was intending to land the 1,000 soldiers carried aboard as reinforcements for the garrison at Santo Domingo, via the Azores.Clowes, p. 189 The voyage was long and difficult, Leissègues struggling through winter storms that divided his squadron and inflicted severe damage to his ships. Arriving at Santo Domingo on 20 January, Leissègues disembarked his troops and began extensive repairs to his ships in preparation for raiding cruises in the Caribbean.James, Vol. 4, p. 198
On 6 February, Leissègues was surprised at anchor by a squadron under Vice-admiral Sir John Duckworth, which had been taking on fresh supplies at Basseterre when news of Leissègues' arrival reached him. Joined by ships from the West Indian squadron, Duckworth's force was larger than Leissègues' and also had the advantage of the wind that prevented the unprepared French squadron from escaping.James, Vol. 4, p. 191 Sailing westwards along the coast in a line of battle, Leissègues' flagship Impérial was the first to be attacked, eventually driving ashore along with the next in line, the , while three others surrendered at the Battle of San Domingo.Woodman, p. 217 Leissègues himself escaped ashore; the only surviving ships of his squadron were the frigates, all of which eventually returned to France later in the spring.Gardiner, The Victory of Seapower, p. 24 Admiral Leissègues' squadron Ship Guns Commander Notes Impérial 120 Vice-admiral Corentin Urbain de Leissègues Captain Julien-Gabriel Bigot Driven ashore and destroyed at the Battle of San Domingo Alexandre 80 Captain Pierre-Elie Garreau Captured at the Battle of San Domingo Brave 74 Commodore Louis-Marie Coudé Captured at the Battle of San Domingo 74 Captain Jean-Baptiste Henry Driven ashore and destroyed at the Battle of San Domingo. Jupiter 74 Captain Gaspard Laignel Captured at the Battle of San Domingo Comète 40 Returned to France in 1806 Félicité 40 Returned to France in 1806 Diligente 20 Captain Raymond Cocault Returned to France in 1806Source: James, Vol. 4, p. 184, Gardiner, The Victory of Seapower, p. 23
Admiral Willaumez's squadron
After separating from Leissègues on 15 December, Willaumez sailed south, capturing a number of vessels from a British troop convoy and sending the prizes, with the frigate Volontaire, to Tenerife.James, Vol. 4, p. 186 Willaumez's intention was to raid the China Fleet, a large convoy of valuable East Indiamen that sailed from the Far East to Britain every year. However, on 23 December he was pursued by Duckworth and driven far off course, so that by the time he reached the Cape of Good Hope, where he planned to resupply his ships, it had already been captured by a British expeditionary force. Turning westwards, Willaumez raided shipping in the South Atlantic until April, when he anchored at Salvador in neutral Brazil. By early May, Willaumez was at sea again, stopping at Cayenne and then splitting his force to raid shipping in the Leeward Islands prior to reuniting at Fort-de-France on Martinique in June.Clowes, p. 193
On 1 July, Willaumez sailed again, attacking shipping at Montserrat, Nevis and St. Kitts before sailing to Tortola in preparation for an attack on the Jamaica convoy. Before he could reach the convoy, Willaumez was intercepted off the Passage Islands by a squadron under Rear-admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane and driven northwards into the Bahamas. There he waited for the Jamaica convoy to pass, seizing any ship of any nationality that came within sight, in case they should reveal his position. After several weeks of waiting, Captain Bonaparte, the Emperor's brother and commander of the ship Vétéran, decided that he would no longer submit to Willaumez's command and sailed north during the night of 31 July, without orders or even notifying the admiral.James, Vol. 4, p. 207
Vétéran eventually returned to France on 26 August, after destroying six ships from a Quebec convoy. Panicked by the unexplained disappearance of one of his ships and its illustrious captain, Willaumez struck north in search of the vessel and as a result missed the passage of the Jamaica convoy, also narrowly avoiding an encounter with the squadrons under Warren and Strachan. On 18 August a hurricane dispersed his ships, severely damaging them and scattering them along the Atlantic Seaboard of the Americas. One was destroyed by a British patrol, two others were too badly damaged to be repaired and were broken up, and three of his ships successfully made the journey back to France over the next two years.
Admiral Willaumez's squadron Ship Guns Commander Notes Foudroyant 80 Vice-admiral Jean-Baptiste Phillibert Willaumez Captain Antoine Henri Badly damaged in an August hurricane, sheltered in Havana. Returned to France in early 1807. Cassard 74 Commodore Gilbert-Amable Faure Separated in August hurricane, returned to Brest on 13 October. Impétueux 74 Commodore Alain-Joseph Le Veyer-Belair Badly damaged in an August hurricane, driven ashore and destroyed by British ships on 14 September 1806. Patriote 74 Commodore Joseph-Hyacinthe-Isidore Khrom Badly damaged in an August hurricane, sheltered in Annapolis. Returned to France in January 1808. Éole 74 Captain Louis-Gilles Prévost de Lacroix Badly damaged in an August hurricane, sheltered in Annapolis. Eventually broken up as beyond repair. Vétéran 74 Captain Jérôme Bonaparte Separated without orders on 31 July, returning to France alone on 26 August. Valeureuse 40 Badly damaged in an August hurricane, sheltered in Philadelphia. Eventually broken up as beyond repair. Volontaire 40 Captain Bretel Detached in December 1805 to Tenerife. Captured on 4 March 1806 at Cape Town.Also two corvettes, names unknownSource: James, Vol. 4, p. 185
Admiral Linois's squadron
One of the minor French squadrons that participated in the campaign was the force under Linois, who had sailed for the Indian Ocean with a ship of the line and four frigates in March 1803 during the Peace of Amiens. After brief stops at Puducherry and Île de France, Linois sailed on a raiding cruise to the South China Sea only to be driven off by a British merchant convoy at the Battle of Pulo Aura.Woodman, p. 195 Despite subsequent minor success against merchant ships, including the Battle of Vizagapatam, Linois's failure to inflict significant damage to British trade in the Far East enraged Napoleon, and in late 1805, with supplies running low and his ships in need of repair, Linois began the return journey to Europe with just his flagship and a single frigate remaining.James, Vol. 4, p. 222
By the early morning of 13 March 1806 he was in the Mid-Atlantic when his lookouts spotted sails in the distance. Turning his force around to investigate, Linois hoped to encounter a merchant convoy but instead discovered the large British second-rate HMS London looming out of the darkness ahead.Gardiner, The Victory of Seapower, p. 29 Unable to escape, Linois fought until his ships were battered and he himself was badly wounded, but he eventually surrendered to Warren's remaining ships, which had followed London. Napoleon's fury at Linois was unabated and the French admiral remained a prisoner of war for the next eight years.Adkins, p. 192
Admiral Linois's squadron Ship Guns Commander Notes Marengo 74 Counter-admiral Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand LinoisCaptain Joseph-Marie Vrignaud Captured at the action of 13 March 1806. Belle Poule 40 Captain Alain-Adélaïde-Marie Bruilhac Captured at the action of 13 March 1806.Source: James, Vol. 3, p. 176, Clowes, p. 58
Commodore L'Hermite's squadron
One of the principal French diversionary operations during 1806 was by a force that had been sent to sea in October 1805 as a diversion during the Trafalgar campaign, which by then was almost over. Sailing from Lorient to West Africa, L'Hermite was supposed to have been reinforced by a squadron under Jérôme Bonaparte and attack and capture British forts on the West African coast, thus forcing the detachment of British forces from the main campaign in pursuit. The events of the end of the Trafalgar campaign cancelled these plans, and the scheduled reinforcements were instead attached to Willaumez's squadron. Despite this setback, L'Hermite continued with elements of the original plan and attacked British merchant ships and slave ships off West Africa during the spring of 1806, inflicting some local damage but failing to capture a trading post or to affect the wider strategic situation.James, Vol. 4, p. 265 In June, L'Hermite sailed to Cayenne for supplies and then returned to Europe the following month, encountering part of the British blockade squadron under Rear-admiral Thomas Louis on his return and losing the frigate Président.Clowes, p. 392