Balinese Hinduism (; or ) is a distinct form of Hinduism practised primarily on the island of Bali, Indonesia. It developed through a long process of religious syncretism, combining indigenous Balinese beliefs with Hindu traditions that spread through the Indonesian archipelago from the early centuries CE. Rather than representing a direct continuation of Indian Hinduism, Balinese Hinduism constitutes a locally evolved religious system shaped by ritual practice, communal organisation, and sacred geography.
Balinese Hinduism is the majority religion in the province of Bali, where approximately 86–87% of the population identify as Hindu, amounting to around 3.8 million adherents on the island. Hinduism as practised in Bali accounts for the largest concentration of Hindus in Indonesia, a country where Hindus constitute about 1.7% of the total population.Indonesia: Religions, Encyclopaedia Britannica
Balinese Hinduism emphasises ritual practice (orthopraxy) over doctrinal authority, communal religious obligation, ancestor veneration, and the maintenance of balance between the visible (sekala) and invisible (niskala) worlds. While it incorporates Hindu philosophical concepts such as dharma, karma, punarjanman, and moksha, these are interpreted through Balinese cosmology and social structures. The religion also reflects historical syncretism with Buddhist and indigenous animist and ancestral worship traditions.
In the modern period, Balinese Hinduism has been institutionally defined to meet Indonesian state requirements for religious recognition, including the articulation of a supreme divine principle, Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa. As such, Balinese Hinduism has been formally recognized by the Indonesian Government as one of the official religions practised in the country.McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as ‘People of the Book’. The Journal of Hindu Studies, Oxford University Press, Despite these formal adaptations, Balinese Hinduism remains deeply rooted in temple-based worship, ritual cycles, and village institutions, and continues to play a central role in Balinese cultural and social life.
Origins and history
Prehistory Prior to the introduction of Indian Hindu–Buddhist influences, religion in Bali was shaped by indigenous Austronesian traditions centred on ancestor veneration, animism, and sacred landscapes. These beliefs were not displaced by Hinduism but were incorporated into it, remaining most evident in the Hindu practices of the Bali Aga communities today. This continuity is exemplified at the temple Pura Pucak Penulisan where squatting ancestral statues have been dated to 2,000 years old and have remained sacred across both pre-Hindu and Hindu periods.
Indian and early Southeast Asian influence
Hindu and Buddhist concepts entered the Indonesian archipelago as early as the first century CE through long-distance trade and cultural exchange.Mark Juergensmeyer and Wade Clark Roof, 2012, Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Volume 1, pages 557–558 Archeological evidence of Indian trade with Bali has been found at Sembiran village dating to this period. Stories from the Mahabharata have been traced in the Indonesian islands from the first century CE with these versions mirroring those found in Tamil Nadu. These influences arrived into Bali primarily via Java rather than directly from India and were mediated through local courts and religious specialists. Sanskrit terminology, Indian epics, cosmology, and ritual ideas were selectively adopted and adapted to existing Balinese frameworks.
According to Balinese legend and recorded on lontar manuscripts, Hinduism was founded on the island by the East Indian priest Rsi Markandeya in the 8th century CE during the period of the Mataram Kingdom on Java. Markandeya led an early expedition to Bali with his followers, which was unsuccessful due to a widespread disease outbreak, most likely cholera. Following this setback, he returned to Java. Through spiritual reflection and the application of knowledge associated with Atharva Vedic traditions and Rasa Shastra, Markandeya developed a ritual method of water purification. He subsequently returned to Bali, where he is said to have sanctified the island’s water sources by burying the Panca Dhatu (five sacred metals) at designated locations on Mount Agung and founded temples across the island including the mother temple, Besakih.
Majapahit period and consolidation
The most significant formative period for Balinese Hinduism occurred during and after the decline of the Javanese Majapahit empire in the late 14th and 15th centuries. In 1343 the Majaphit led by Prime Minister Gajah Mada conquered Bali defeating the local ruler at Bedulu. This pivotal invasion transformed Bali into a vassal state, resulting in a significant influx of Javanese Hindu culture, aristocracy, and artistry, which deeply influenced Balinese society, language, and religion for centuries.
As Islamic polities rose in Java during the late 15th century, Hindu-Javanese elites, priests, artists, and intellectuals migrated to Bali. They brought court culture, Old Javanese (Kawi) literature, temple architecture, and Brahmanical ritual traditions. As was the case in Java, Budhism in Bali was largely integrated into a dominant Hindu religion.
The most significant figure during this period was the priest Dang Hyang Nirartha who is credited with being the most influential reformer of Balinese Hinduism. He was sent to Bali by the Majapahit court in 1492 and founded the Sahivite priesthood that is now ubiquitous.
Niratha was an important promoter of the idea of moksha (freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth) and introduced into Balinese temples the padmasana shrine of the empty throne as an altar to the supreme god Acintya or Shiva. The temples on the coasts of Bali were augmented with the padmasana shrines by the dozen during Nirartha's travels.
Colonial period During the Dutch colonial rule in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Balinese religion was increasingly categorised and studied through European frameworks. Colonial administrators and scholars often described Balinese Hinduism as a "preserved" or "classical" form of Hinduism, a characterisation that obscured its dynamic and adaptive nature.Jean Gelman Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples and Histories, Yale University Press; , pp. 21-83 and 142-173 Colonial intervention disrupted royal authority and temple patronage but did not dismantle village-based religious institutions, which remained central to religious continuity.
Modern redefinition and Indonesian state recognition Following the Indonesian independence, Balinese religious leaders undertook a process of formal reinterpretation to secure official recognition of their religion within the Indonesian state, which requires belief in a supreme deity. This led to the articulation of Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa as the supreme divine principle and the formal naming of the religion as Agama Hindu Dharma.
In 1952, the Indonesian Ministry of Religion came under the control of Islamists who severely constrained the acceptable definition of a "religion". To be acceptable as an officially government recognised religion, the ministry defined "religion" as one that is monotheistic, has codified religious law, possesses a prophet and a Holy Book, amongst other requirements. Balinese Hindus were declared as "people without a religion", and available to be converted. The Balinese disagreed, debated, adapted, and declared their form of Hinduism to be monotheistic, and presented it in a form to be eligible for the status of agama under the 1952 amended articles.
To accomplish this, the Balinese initiated a series of student and cultural exchange initiatives between Bali and India to help formulate the core principles behind Balinese Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishad, Puranas, Itihasa). This led to the joint petition of 1958 which demanded the Indonesian government recognize Hindu Dharma. This joint petition quoted the following Sanskrit mantra from the Hindu scriptures:Michel Picard (2003), in Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge; , Chapter 4, pp. 56-74
The petition's focus on the "undivided one" was to satisfy the constitutional requirement that Indonesian citizens have a monotheistic belief in one God with Ida Sanghyang Widhi Wasa being identified as the undivided one. In the Balinese language, this term has two meanings: "the Divine ruler of the Universe" and "the Divine Absolute Cosmic Law". This creative phrase met the monotheistic requirement of the Indonesian Ministry of Religion in the former sense, while the latter sense of its meaning preserved the central ideas of dharma in ancient scripts of Hinduism.Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge; , pp. 9-12 Bali became the only part of Indonesia to remain predominantly Hindu.Jones (1971) p11Ricklefs (1989) p13
Key beliefs The foundation of Balinese Hinduism rests on three principles: Tattwa (Philosophy), Susila (Ethics), and Acara (Ritual Practice). These principles are inseparable, forming a unified whole.
Balinese Hindu philosophy emphasizes the pursuit of ultimate truth, attainable through three means of knowledge (Tri Pramana): Pratyaksa Pramana (direct observation), Anumana Pramana (inference), and Agama Pramana (study of scripture and guidance from trusted teachers). From these arise faith (Sradha), expressed in five essences known as Panca Sradha:
Belief in God (Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa), Belief in Atman, Belief in Karma Phala, Belief in Punarbhawa (reincarnation), and Belief in Moksha.
Supreme reality and divinity
Balinese Hinduism recognises a supreme, formless reality known as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, understood as the ultimate source of existence. This supreme principle is manifested through multiple gods (dewa), each representing specific aspects of cosmic function and natural order. Sang Hyang Widhi has been likened to the concept of the Christian God or Allah in Islam.
The major Hindu deities—such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are revered, with Shiva often occupying a particularly prominent role. Divinity is not viewed as distant or abstract but as actively present in the natural world, temples, ancestors, and daily life.
Catur Purusa Artha Catur Purusa Artha refers to the four fundamental aims of human life recognised in Balinese Hinduism, adapted from broader Hindu philosophical traditions (puruṣārtha). These aims provide an ethical and spiritual framework guiding individual conduct and social responsibility, and are understood as interdependent rather than sequential.Ida Bagus Sudirga (2009), Widya Dharma - Agama Hindu, Ganeca Indonesia; IGP Sugandhi (2005), Seni (Rupa) Bali Hindu Dalam Perspektif Epistemologi Brahma Widya, Ornamen, Vol 2, Number 1, pp. 58-69
Dharma – Moral duty and right conduct, encompassing religious obligation, social responsibility, and ethical behaviour. In Balinese Hinduism, dharma is closely linked to communal participation, ritual observance, and the maintenance of harmony. Artha – Material prosperity and economic well-being, pursued through lawful and socially responsible means. Artha is valued as necessary for sustaining family life, fulfilling ritual obligations, and supporting communal institutions. Kama – Pleasure, emotional fulfilment, and aesthetic enjoyment, recognised as a legitimate aspect of human life when balanced with dharma. Artistic expression, ritual performance, and family life are key expressions of kama in Balinese culture. Moksa – Spiritual liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara), achieved through ethical living, ritual purification, and spiritual insight across multiple lifetimes.
Karma, rebirth, and liberation