The game of Go (; Old Chinese: *ɢʷəj grə "surrounding game") is widely regarded as one of the world's oldest continuously played board games. Its origins are rooted in ancient China, with the earliest textual reference found in the Zuo Zhuan (c. 548 BCE). Its prestige and popularity rose over time, until it became considered one of the four essential arts of a cultured Chinese scholar. By the Tang dynasty, Go had become a major pastime at the imperial court, which also established a system of ranks and Go tournaments. Go spread from China to Korea between the 5th and 7th centuries CE, where it became known as baduk, and later to Japan in the 7th century, gaining popularity at the imperial court from the 8th century onward.
Initially played on a 17×17 grid, the standard 19×19 board emerged by the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). Ancient Chinese and Korean Go also began the game with set stone placements. This way of setting up the board was abandoned in 1600s Japan, where players adopted the now standard empty board way of starting the game. In Japan, from the early 17th century (1603 onwards), the Tokugawa shogunate established four official Go schools and patronized highly formalized competitive play, including annual castle games in the presence of the shōgun as well as introducing a formal ranking system. These institutions extensively advanced the level of play in Japan. With the Meiji Restoration and the collapse of shogunal patronage, modern professional Go organization took shape under the Nihon Ki-in (Japan Go Association) in the early 20th century. Similar Chinese and Korean associations were also soon established to promote professional play.
Go's introduction to the Western world occurred in the late 19th century when German scholar Oskar Korschelt published descriptions of the game after his time in Japan. Western organized play followed in the early 20th century with figures like Edward Lasker founding clubs and publishing texts. Institutions such as the American Go Association (1935) and the German Go Association (1937) were established. In the post-war era, Japan played a major role in promoting Go globally through overseas centers, professional tours, and publications. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Go had evolved into a globally organized competitive activity, with numerous international championships, a thriving amateur community, and recognition by the International Go Federation. Another major development in the early 21st century was the rise of Go computers who could defeat the top Go professional players and help enthusiasts analyze Go games.
Chinese history
In ancient China, Weiqi ("Surrounding Game", i.e. Go) grew to attain an important status among the elite classes and was often associated with ideas of self-cultivation, wisdom, and gentlemanly ideals. According to Japanese historian Miyoshi, Go flourished in China from about 200 to 600 CE, when the interest in art and literature was at a high point. Go also became one of the four cultivated arts of the Chinese scholar-gentleman, along with calligraphy, painting and playing the musical instrument guqin, and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the imperial bureaucracy.
Early period Go's early history is debated, but there are various traditional myths about its existence. According to legend, the game was created as a teaching tool after the ancient Chinese Emperor Yao designed it for his son, Danzhu , to learn discipline, concentration, and balance. Another suggested genesis for the game is that it developed from the experiences of hunting and warfare, which were based on surrounding one's target / enemies. Other theories relate Go equipment to divination and geomancy, but there is little evidence for this according to Shotwell.Shotwell (2011), Chapter Sixteen, The History of Go However, according to Japanese scholar Shirakawa Masayoshi, the stones may be linked symbolically to the earth, with black and white representing forces channeled along the board's lines in a manner conceptually related to acupuncture and feng shui geomancy; Shirakawa further connects the game to the River Chart said to underlie the divinatory system of the I Ching. A structural reading of the Yao myth interprets it as a clash of opposing elements (heaven (Yao), earth (Shun), and water (Danzhu)), tied to the theme of controlling the floods of the Yellow River. Confucius himself is said to have criticized the game as inducing greed and idleness.
The earliest written reference of the game is usually taken to be the historical annal Zuo Zhuan (), referring to a historical event of 548 BCE. It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the Analects of Confucius and in two of the books of Mencius (). In all of these works, the game is referred to as (; Old Chinese: *ɢrak). The rules of the earliest forms of Go are unknown, but some scholars believe that in one variant, victory was achieved by having more stones on the board than your opponent. There is also speculation that the rules were simple, similar to those of the simplified variant rules of "Pure Go".
Han, Wei, and Jin Dynasties
During this period, Weiqi, along with the dice game "Liubo," were collectively called "Bóyì" (博弈). These games spread among the upper classes. During the Western Han, the luck-based "Liubo" was more popular than Weiqi. But by the Eastern Han era (25–220 CE), Weiqi gradually gained more esteem as it was seen as analogous to military strategy. Ban Gu's Yì Zhǐ (The Essentials of Go) is considered the world's first specialized book on Weiqi. Ma Rong, in his Wéiqí Fù (Rhapsody on Weiqi), was the first to express the idea that "a board three chi square becomes a battlefield."
Famous figures of the Eastern Han such as Cao Cao, Sun Ce, and Wang Can were all fond of Weiqi. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a classic Chinese novel, includes a well known story of Guan Yu playing Go while undergoing surgery for an arrow wound.
Chinese archaeologists have discovered a broken piece of a pottery go board from the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 24 CE) in Shaanxi Province. This is the earliest discovery of an existing board unearthed in China. The board was found in the ruins of a watchtower at the tombs of Emperor Jingdi and Empress Wang Zhi of the Western Han dynasty. The broken fragment of the board measures 5.7 cm to 28.5 cm long, 17 cm to 19.7 cm wide and 3.6 cm thick. Li Gang, a research fellow with the Shaanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute, said that this board might have been made from a floor tile, and that it did not belong to the royal family since the carvings are too rough. Li said the board could have been made by the tomb guards who played go to pass the time. "That proves that go was being played not only by nobles, but also by ordinary people like tomb guards, more than 2,000 years ago", Li noted.
In 1954 a complete Go board made out of stone was found in a tomb dating to the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) in Wangdu County, Hebei Province. This board has a 17 × 17 grid, which confirms the statement by the 3rd century author Handan Chun in the Classic of Arts that Go was at this time played on a 17 × 17 grid:
The go board has 17 lines along its length and breadth, making 289 points in all. The black and white stones each number 150. While Weiqi was popular with many groups during the Han, it was also criticized by Confucian authors and Han historians. Confucian moralists saw the game as a waste of time, as the pastime of gamblers and as a game that only distracted gentlemen from the proper Confucian arts like music, ritual and government duties.Paolo Zanon, “The Opposition of the Literati to the Game of Wei Qi in Ancient China.” Asian and African Studies, 5, no. 6, (1996): p. 74.
Golden Age of Weiqi
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Weiqi became popular among literati and refined scholars in the South. The board expanded to 19x19 during this time, as can be seen from various historical sources.『孫子算経』（遅くとも5世紀に成立）巻下「今有棋局、方一十九道」 The first book dedicated to Go, the Dunhuang Go Manual ( CE), dates to this period. It was found in the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, and discusses the game as played on a 19x19 board. More pre-modern Chinese books devoted to the game were written during the Tang and Song dynasties. The earliest board with a 19x19 grid to have been found is a ceramic board dating to the Sui dynasty (581–618) that was excavated from Anyang in Henan Province. Thus, the change in board size must have occurred sometime between the 3rd and 6th centuries. However, the 17×17 board has survived in the version of Go played in Tibet.
The Southern Dynasties established a system of Go grades (Qípǐn) and the Weiqi Provincial Capital (Wéiqí Zhōuyì) system, categorizing professional players into different grades and providing them with stipends. Emperor Wu of Liang (464–549) composed his own Wéiqí Fù (Rhapsody on Weiqi) to promote the game, ushering in a golden age for Weiqi. Emperor Wu also organized a national Weiqi tournament. This is the first documented national tournament. After the tournament, 278 players were confirmed to have achieved a rank, either Upper Grade (Shàngpǐn) or Entry Grade (Rùpǐn).
During the Tang Dynasty (618 to 907), Weiqi continued to develop. The first Tang emperor valued Go, and appointed top players political posts, believing that their skill could transfer into real life commands. He also established a ranking system for Go players. Later Tang rulers also held that the Confucian virtues could be cultivated through Go playing.
The Tang court also established the position of Qídàizhào (Go Attendant), specifically for players who would play Go with the emperor. Wang Jixin (王积薪) was a master during the Kaiyuan era and compiled the famous Ten Golden Rules of Go (围棋十决). The classic ten rules are a set of four character phrases, which are the following:
不得贪胜 (Bùdé tān shèng) - Avoid Greed or you Won't Win: This rule advises against overreaching for a larger win than the position allows. A secure, small-margin victory is far superior to a risky play for a big win that backfires and turns the game. It emphasizes solid, error-free play over ambitious but vulnerable attacks. 入界宜缓 (Rù jiè yí huǎn) - Enter Opponent's Territory Cautiously: When invading or reducing an opponent's territorial framework, one should not rush in deeply or blindly. The approach should be gradual, light, and flexible, with a plan for retreat. This avoids creating heavy, vulnerable groups that become a burden and a target for attack. 攻彼顾我 (Gōng bǐ gù wǒ) - Look After Yourself When Attacking: A true attack in Go is not merely about capturing stones; it is about strengthening your own position. Before launching an assault, you must ensure your own groups are secure and without weaknesses. The ideal attack is one that simultaneously pressures the opponent and solidifies your own influence and territory. 弃子争先 (Qì zǐ zhēng xiān) - Sacrifice Stones to Seize the Initiative: This is a core strategic concept. The initiative, here seen as the power to make a move that demands a response, is extremely valuable. It is often wise to willingly sacrifice a few stones to regain the initiative, allowing you to play a crucial move elsewhere on the board. The global gain from leading the play outweighs the local loss of the sacrificed stones. 舍小就大 (Shě xiǎo jiù dà) - Relinquish the Small to Save the Large: A player must constantly evaluate the relative value of every point on the board. The "large" refers to high-value points that affect overall influence and territory, while the "small" are less consequential areas. Superior strategy involves ignoring minor, local skirmishes to secure the biggest, most important plays that determine the outcome of the entire game.