Wisdom, also known as sapience,EBSCO, Wisdom (sapience) is defined by psychologists as a combination of "wit and virtue," the ability to apply expert tacit and experiential knowledge, balancing intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests, to deal with complex questions of life and attain a common good. Wisdom can be viewed as a stable personality trait, but also as context-bound process, meaning that a person in some contexts behaves wisely, but in other contexts does not. Wisdom can also be viewed as influenced and determined by sociocultural norms and traditions. Wisdom can be viewed solely as wise behaviour, describing actions which lead to "an altruistic outcome by creatively and successfully solving problems."
Throughout history, wisdom has been regarded as a key virtue in religion and philosophy. Religiously, wisdom is an important element in the Biblical wisdom-tradition - often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience - which was further developed in Christianity and Islam. In Mahayana Buddhism, prajna (insight, "wisdom") is wedded to karuṇā, compassion, as icographically represented in yab-yum. Philosophically, wisdom has been explored by thinkers from Ancient Greece to modern times, with Greek (Plato) making a distinction between sophia, philosophical and contemplative wisdom regarding the divine order of existence; phronesis, practical wisdom; and episteme, formal or scientific knowledge.
Psychologists have researched wisdom since the late 1970s, starting with exploring folk conceptions of wisdom, and subsequently developing explicit-formal theories of wisdom. Theories that regard wisdom as a developmental cognitive and personal trait hark back to Erik Eriksons theory of stages of psychosocial development, and post-formal stages added to Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development. Explicit-formal theories include Robert J. Sternbergs Balance Theory of Wisdom, which explores the relation between intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, and sees wisdom as "the value-laden application of tacit knowledge to attain a common good"; and Paul Baltes' Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, which sees wisdom as a combination of "excellence in mind and virtue" and "an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life." Psychological definitions include two common components, namely wit and virtue: an emphasis on cognition, meaning, and affect, and a concern for human welfare.
Etymology The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law"). The Proto-Germanic root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear in Old High German (wīssag, "prophetic"), Old Norse (vísdómr), and Gothic (weisdumbs).
In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (sophia), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue. The Latin equivalent, sapientia, derives from sapere ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.
In Sanskrit jñāna (ज्ञान) and viveka (विवेक) refer to knowledge and insight, and discernment or discrimination.
Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages: Hebrew: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom. Chinese: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.
Definitions
Dictionary definitions Merriam-Webster: "ability to discern inner qualities and relationships"; "good sense"Merriam-Webster, Wisdom Cambridge dictionary: "the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments"Cambridge Dictionary, wisdom Oxford English Dictionary:Oxford English Dictionary, wisdom "Capacity of judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgement in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense, esp. in practical affairs: opposed to folly"; "Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition; in early use often = philosophy, science. †Also, practical knowledge or understanding, expertness in an art. Now historical." The Britannica Dictionary: "knowledge that is gained by having many experiences in life"; " the natural ability to understand things that most other people cannot understand"; "knowledge of what is proper or reasonable"; " good sense or judgment"The Britannica Dictionary, wisdom
Western religion and mythology
Mesopotamian mythology The earliest wisdom literature comes from Sumerian and Egyptian texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (me) was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in proverbs and myths. In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed and the ordering of the cosmos, and it was achieved by humans by following s (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance. In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from , there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following:
Egyptian mythology
Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.
Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.
The concept of Logosmanifest word of the divine thoughtwas also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece. It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.
Judaism
Biblical wisdom literature includes the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job, which depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.
The word "wisdom" (Chokmah (חָכְמָה), from the Hebrew root ) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness () and justice (). Wisdom is exemplified by Solomon. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).Wolpe, David, perf. "Re'eh: What it Means to Choose." Rabbi David Wolpe. Sinai Temple, 11 August 2012. web. 16 August 2013.
Greek mythology
Athena and Metis
The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.Hesiod. Theogony. Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.
Apollo
Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes), who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "" (archer) and "" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer". Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" () was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims). He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus. Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.
Roman mythology
The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.
Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism
In Hellenistic religion, wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularly Orphism and the Eleusinian Mysteries, wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths. Philosophical movements such as Neoplatonism developed a concept of wisdom (sophia, σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence. Plotinus (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towards the One, the ultimate source of all reality. In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.
Christianity In Christian theology, "wisdom" describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God. Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Justin Martyr,In his Dialogue with Tripho (55, 1), Justin calls the Word of God a "second God" (ἕτερος θεός), meaning the second divine person of a unique Triune God. Athenagoras of Athens and Theophilus of Antioch identified the Wisdom of the Book of Proverbs with the Word who is Jesus Christ God. p. 111.
Gnosticism Wisdom also played a central role in Gnosticism, an esoteric movement that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity's knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in the Nag Hammadi library, Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source of gnosis (spiritual knowledge). According to Valentinian Gnosticism, Sophia's fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.
Gnostic texts such as the Pistis Sophia depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with the Logos and divine order rather than cosmic dualism. In Hermeticism, another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (nous, νοῦς). These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.
Islam In Islamic philosophy the Arabic term (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Al-Farabi. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator. Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:
Norse mythology
Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.