The Greater Binanderean or Guhu-Oro languages are a language family spoken along the northeast coast of the Papuan Peninsula – the "Bird's Tail" of New Guinea – and appear to be a recent expansion from the north. They were classified as a branch of the Trans–New Guinea languages by Stephen Wurm (1975) and Malcolm Ross (2005), but removed (along with the related Goilalan languages) by Timothy Usher (2020). The Binandere family proper is transparently valid; Ross connected it to the Guhu-Semane isolate based on pronominal evidence, and this has been confirmed by Smallhorn (2011). Proto-Binanderean (which excludes Guhu-Samane) has been reconstructed in Smallhorn (2011).
Language contact There is evidence that settlements of people speaking Oceanic languages along the Binanderean coast were gradually absorbed into inland communities speaking Binanderean languages (Bradshaw 2017). For instance, the SOV word order of Papuan Tip languages is due to Binanderean influence.Bradshaw, Joel (2017). Evidence of contact between Binanderean and Oceanic languages. Oceanic Linguistics 56:395–414.
Korafe displays significant influence from Oceanic languages. Meanwhile, Maisin, spoken in Oro Province, is an Oceanic language with very heavy Binanderean influence and shows characteristics typical of mixed languages.
Spoken in Morobe Province, Guhu-Samane is divergent, which may be due to extensive historical contact with Oceanic languages such as Numbami.
Classification Greater Binanderean consists of the Guhu-Samane language and the Binanderean languages proper. Smallhorn (2011:444) provides the following classification:
Greater Binanderean Guhu-Samane Binanderean Yekora North Binanderean Suena Zia Nuclear Binanderean Binandere South Binanderean Orokaivic Aeka (Northern Orokaiva) Orokaiva Hunjara (Mountain Orokaiva) Coastal Binanderean Notu-Yega (Ewage) Gaena-Korafe Baruga
However, South Binanderean and Nuclear Binanderean are non-genealogical linkages. Usher (2020), who calls the Binanderean languages proper "Oro" after Oro Province, classifies them very similarly, apart from not reproducing the non-cladistic linkages:New Guinea World – Guhu-Oro
Guhu–Oro (= Greater Binanderean) Guhu-Samane Oro (= Binanderean) Binandere Yekora Ewage-Notu Suena–Zia (= North Binanderean) Suena Zia Central Oro (= Orokaivic) Aeka Orokaiva Hunjara Southeast Oro (= Coastal Binanderean, minus Ewage-Notu) Baruga Gaina–Korafe Gaina Korafe-Yegha
Demographics Smallhorn (2011:3) provides population figures for the following Binanderean languages.
Guhu-Samane: 12,800 Suena: 3,000 Yekora: 1,000 Zia: 3,000 Mawae: 943 Binandere: 7,000 (including Ambasi) Aeka: 3,400 Orokaiva: 24,000 Hunjara: 8,770 Notu: 12,900 (including Yega) Gaena: 1,410 Baruga: 2,230 Doghoro: 270 Korafe: 3,630
Total about 80,000
Proto-language Pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs both independent pronouns and verbal person prefixes:
!sg.!!pronoun!!prefix |- !1 |*na||*a- |- !2 |*ni||*i- |- !3 |*nu||*u-
Only 1sg continues the Trans-New Guinea set.
Vocabulary The following selected reconstructions of Proto-Binanderean and other lower-level reconstructions are from the Trans-New Guinea database:
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Binandere !! Proto-North-Binandere !! Proto-Nuclear-Binandere |- ! head | *ciro; *giti || || |- ! hair | *tu || || |- ! ear | || *doŋgarә || *onje |- ! eye | *dibe; *diti || || |- ! nose | || *mendә || |- ! tooth | *di || || |- ! tongue | *VwVwV || || |- ! dog | *sinә || || |- ! pig | *pu || || |- ! bird | || || *ndi |- ! egg | *munju || || |- ! blood | *ju; *or{a,o}rә || || |- ! bone | *bobo; *wetu || || |- ! skin | *tamә || || |- ! breast | *ami || || |- ! tree | *i || || |- ! man | *embә || || |- ! woman | *bam{u,o}nә || || *ewVtu |- ! sky | *utu || || |- ! sun | *iji; *waeko || *wari || |- ! moon | *inua || || *kariga |- ! fire | *awo || || |- ! stone | *g{o,e}mb{a,i}(ro) || *daba || *ganuma |- ! road, path | *begata; *esa; *ndai || || |- ! name | *jajo; *jawә || || |- ! eat | *ind-; *mind- || || |- ! one | *daba || ||
Evolution
Greater Binanderean reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:
Binandere language: ‘lightning’ < * ‘nose’ < * ‘kidney, testicles’ < * ‘internal organs’ ‘eye’ < * ‘sap’ < * ‘sap, milk’ ‘breast’ < * ‘head’ < * ‘teeth’ < * ‘tooth’ ‘spittle’, - ‘to spit’ < * ‘to spit’ ‘father’ < * ‘man’ < * ‘tree’ < * ‘stone’ < * ‘darkness’ < * ‘night’ ‘lightning’ < * ‘(fire)light’ ‘fire’ < * ‘ashes’ ‘bird’ < * ‘eat, drink’ < * ‘to blow’ < * + verb ‘short’ < *
Korafe language: ‘egg’ < * ‘internal organs’ ‘urine’ < * ‘burning stick’ < * ‘ashes’ ‘give’ < * ‘hear, understand’ < * ‘know’
Suena language: ‘destitute’ < * ‘orphan, widow and child’ ‘mother’ < * ‘night’ < * ‘taro’ < * ‘netbag’ < *
Yega language: ‘ear’ < *
Phonotactics Like the Koiarian languages, Binanderean languages only allow for open syllables and do not allow final CVC.
References
Smallhorn, Jacinta Mary (2011). The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Further reading Proto-Binandere. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-Nuclear-Binandere. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-North-Binandere. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-South-Binandere. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-Orokaiva. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-Coastal-Binandere. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-Baruga. TransNewGuinea.org. From Smallhorn, J. 2011. The Binanderean languages of Papua New Guinea: reconstruction and subgrouping. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Wilson, D. "The Binandere Language Family". In Capell, A., Healey, A. and Wilson, D. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 9. A-18:65-86. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1969.
External links Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Guhu–Oro Doregari Kotopu Anglican Holy Communion in Binandere, digitized by Richard Mammana and Charles Wohlers Benunu tepo ae sakrament da kandoari ae ekalesia da jimbo nenei ainda book England da ekalesia da jimbo ango (1959) Book of Common Prayer digitized by Richard Mammana King, Copland. 1927. Grammar and Dictionary of the Binandere Language, Mamba River, North Division, Papua. Sydney: D.S. Ford.