Aššur, also known as Ashur and Qal'at Sherqat, was the capital of the Middle Assyrian Empire for a time, of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) and a semi-independent state during the Parthian Empire between the 2nd century BC and mid 3rd century AD. The remains of the city lie on the western bank of the Tigris River, north of the confluence with its tributary, the Little Zab, in what is now Iraq, more precisely in the al-Shirqat District of the Saladin Governorate. Assur lies south of the site of Kalhu (the biblical Calah, Nimrud) and 100 km (60 mi) south of Nineveh.
Occupation of the city itself continued for approximately 3,000 years,Karen Radner, "Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction", New York: Oxford University Press, 2015 from the Early Dynastic Period to the mid-3rd century AD, when the city was sacked by the Sasanian Empire, after which it was sparsely populated until the massacres of Assyrian Christians conducted by Tamurlane in the 14th century AD after which the remaining population relocated to the countryside. The site is a World Heritage Site and was added to that organization's list of sites in danger in 2003 as a result of a proposed dam, which would flood some of the site.
The city lies on a south facing mountain spur with a triangular layout. The northern, higher, area held public buildings including the palace and temples of Ashur, Anu, Adad, Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar. Novák, Mirko, "From Ashur to Nineveh: The Assyrian town-planning programme", Iraq 66, pp. 177-185, 2004
Archaeology
Assur was briefly excavated by Austen Henry Layard and Hormuzd Rassam, in the 1800s while working at Nineveh. Rassam worked there in the 1850s and 1870s, though rarely present in person. Rassam, H., "Recent Assyrian and Babylonian research", Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute 14, pp. 182–225, 1881 Regular exploration of Assur began in 1898 by German archaeologists. Excavations began in 1900 by Friedrich Delitzsch, and were continued in 1903–1914 by a team from the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft led initially by Robert Koldewey and later by Walter Andrae. Working 12 months a year, mainly in the northern public area, they excavated the Anu, Adad, Sin, Shamash, Ishtar, Nabu, and Assur temples along with the Assur/Enlil ziggurat and the Old Palace. Additionally, the city's double city was also cleared. Walter Andrae, "Der Anu-Adad-Tempel in Assur", JC Hinrichs, 1909, (1984 reprint ) Walter Andrae, "Die Stelenreihen in Assur", JC Hinrichs, 1913, (1972 reprint ) Walter Andrae, "Die archaischen Ischtar-Tempel in Assur", JC Hinrichs, 1922, (1970 reprint )Walter Andrae, "Hethitische Inschriften auf Bleistreifen aus Assur", JC Hinrichs, 1924 Walter Andrae, "Das wiedererstandene Assur", JC Hinrichs, 1938, (1977 reprint ) More than 16,000 clay tablets with cuneiform texts were discovered and are held at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Several thousand shell, stone, glass and ceramic beads were encountered at a deep level with two of the beads being much later determined to be Baltic amber. About 700 worked and unworked bone and ivory objects also found.Wicke, Dirk, "Bone and ivory working at Assur", Levant. The Journal of the Council for British Research in the Levant, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 197–207, 2016 These excavations were thinly published at the time due to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, and later efforts have been made to correct that.Pedde, F., "The Assur Project: The Middle and Neo-Assyrian Graves and Tombs", Proceedings of the 7th ICAANE, London 1, pp. 93–108, 2010Zettler, Richard L., "Der Sin-Samas-Tempel in Assur", The Journal of the American Oriental Society 130.3, pp. 458–460, 2010Butcher, Kevin, "From Achaemenids to the Arsacids", in Regional History and the Coin Finds from Assur: From the Achaemenids to the Nineteenth Century, ed. by Kevin Butcher and Stefan Heidemann (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz), pp. 7–48, 2017Friedhelm Pedde, "The Assur-Project: A new Analysis of the Middle- and Neo-Assyrian Graves and Tombs", in: P. Matthiae – F. Pinnock – L. Nigro – N. Marchetti (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, May, 5th-10th 2008, Sapienza – Università di Roma. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden Vol. 1, 913–923, 2010Friedhelm Pedde, "The Assur-Project. An old excavation newly analyzed", in J.M. Córdoba et al. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Madrid, April 3–8, 2006. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Ediciones, Madrid, Vol. II, 743–752, 2008Steven Lundström, "From six to seven Royal Tombs. The documentation of the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft excavation at Assur (1903–1914) – Possibilities and limits of its reexamination", in J.M. Córdoba et al. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Madrid, April 3–8, 2006. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Ediciones, Madrid, Vol. II, 445–463, 2008
Because of the large construction overburden from later periods a full stratigraphy was only possible at the site of the Ishtar temple in the Nabu district. Eight primary construction/occupation levels were determined for the Ishtar temple (A–H). The most recent layers (A–C), called "later temples", began with the oldest built by Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207). The oldest levels (D–H) began with the earliest in the Early Dynastic period. The excavator believed that there was an occupational hiatus in level F during which no temple existed.
Iraqi archaeologists worked at Assur intermittently after 1979, primarily doing restoration work and room clearing but some excavation activity continued. Parthian graves were excavated and an octagonal prism of Tiglath-pileser, and 52 Neo-Assyrian period tablets were found."Excavations in Iraq, 1977–78", Iraq, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 141–81, 1979"Excavations in Iraq, 1979–80", Iraq, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 167–98, 1981"Excavations in Iraq, 1981–82", Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983
More recently, Assur was excavated by Barthel Hrouda for LMU Munich and the Bavarian Ministry of Culture in 1990. The team worked in the west-central part of the site about 120 meters south of the Nabu Temple.Wright, G. R. H., "Assur. An Unusual Parthian Grave Form in Its Context", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 52, pp. 186–198, 2011"Excavations in Iraq 1989–1990", Iraq, vol. 53, pp. 169–182, 1991B. Hrouda, "Vorläufiger Bericht über die neuen Ausgrabungen in Assur, Frühjahr 1990", in Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (MDOG) 123, 1991 During the same period, in 1988 and 1989, the site was being worked by R. Dittmann on behalf of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.R. Dittmann, "Ausgrabungen der Freien Universitat Berlin in Ashur und Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta in den Jahren 1986–1989", MDOG, vol. 122, pp. 157–171, 1990"Excavations in Iraq 1987–88", Iraq, vol. 51, pp. 249–65, 1989 In 2000–2001 the site was excavated by Peter A. Miglus.Miglus, Peter A., et al., "Assur: Frühjahrskampagne 2000", Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin 132, pp. 13–54, 2000Miglus, Peter A., "Assur. Herbstkampagne 2001", Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 134, pp. 7–39, 2002
Excavation at the site resumed in 2023 by the Assur Excavation Project led by Professor Karen Radner and a team of Iraqi and European colleagues. Work continued in 2024.Radner, Karen, and Andrea Squitieri, eds, "Assur 2023: Excavations and other research in the New Town. Vol. 1", PeWe-Verlag, 2024 Altaweel, Mark, "Assur 2024: Continuing the excavations in the New Town and other research across the site. Exploring Assur, Vol. 2", PeWe Verlag, 2025 Radner, Karen, Andrea Squitieri, and Florian Janoscha Kreppner, "Die neuen Ausgrabungen in Assur: die Ergebnisse der Feldarbeiten und Analysen von 2024", Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin, pp. 151–179, 2025 In 2023, after a drone survey, a caesium total field magnetometer survey of the mostly Parthian New Town area of Assur on the east side of the city. Data from a small, 2 hectare, magnetometry survey done in the central area of Assur was merged in. A trial electrical resistivity tomography test was conducted and also eight core samples were taken. Fassbinder, Jörg, et al., "Magnetometer prospecting at Assur, 2023", Assur 2023: Excavations and other research in the New Town 1, pp. 67–81, 2024
In 2024 Iraqi and European archaeologists took four core samples in the deepest layers below the foundation of the Ishtar temple showing that it was built on a thick layer of pure sand, standard practice in Southern Mesopotamia but rare in later temples built at Assur. They retrieved one charcoal sample at the earliest point which was found to have a radiocarbon date of 2896–2702 BC (calibration method used IntCal20). The early excavators had dated the founding of the Ishtar temple to early in the 3rd millennium BC but later work had revised that to the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC). Work continued in 2025 and finds included 8 fragments with cuneiform text.Tushingham, Poppy, and Jana Richter, "Cuneiform finds from Assur, 2025", Radner, Karen, Jana Richter, and Andrea Squitieri, Assur 2025. Further insights into life and death in the New Town. Exploring Assur, Vol. 3. Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag, pp. 176–182, 2026
History
Early Bronze Age Early Dynastic I-III While there are no textual references to Assur in the Early Dynastic period a number of Early Dynastic III finds were made in the early excavations at the Ishtar temple, including a number of seated and standing female statues.Jürgen Bär, "Sumerians, Gutians and Hurrians at Ashur? A Re-Examination of Ishtar Temples G and F", Iraq, vol. 65, pp. 143–60, 2003 More recent work at the Ishtar Temple, including a radiocarbon date, suggests a foundation for the city by the Early Dynastic I period.Altaweel, Mark; Squitieri, Andrea; Eckmeier, Eileen; Garzanti, Eduardo; Radner, Karen, "The sand deposit underneath the Ishtar Temple in Assur, Iraq: Origin and implications for the foundation of the goddess’s cult and sanctuary", Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 69, Article 105574, 2026 10.1016/j.jasrep.2026.105574
Ur III period During the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC), Assur was under the control of Ur. One of the governors of Assur, Zariqum, is known. From references in texts found at Drehem and Umma it is known that he was originally an Ur III official from Shulgi year 44 until year 47 (about 3.5 years) then from Shulgi year 48 until Amar-Sin year 5 (about 6 years) was governor of Assur. He then became governor of Susa from Amar-Sin year 5 until Shu-Sin year 4 (about 8 years). It is thought that at that time, Assur and Susa were under the control of a single governor. An inscription was found in the Ishtar temple where Zariqum recorded building a temple for Bēlat-ekallim (Ninegal), for the life of Amar-Sin.Hallo, William W., "Zāriqum", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 220–25, 1956R. Kutscher, "A Note on the Early Careers of Zariqum and Samsi-illat", RA 73, pp. 81–82, 1979Poebel, A., "The Assyrian King List from Khorsabad", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 247–306, 1942"RIME 3/2.01.03.2001 Composite Artifact Entry", (2012) 2024. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI). September 22, 2024
Middle Bronze
Isin-Larsa period Around the end of the 21st century BC, the Ur III Empire collapsed at the hands of the Elamites, and the control of Assur shifted briefly to Eshnunna. A weight in the shape of a duck found at Assur read "Dāduša, son of Ipiq-Adad, king of Eshnunna, to Inibšina, his daughter, he presented [this weight].""RIME 4.05.19.02 Composite Artifact Entry", 2013. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI). January 20, 2013
Old Assyrian period In this period Assur was a central hub the "karum" trading network which stretched through Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia. Kültepe was another important