The History of early Islamic Tunisia opens with the arrival of the Arabs who brought their language and the religion of Islam, and its calendar.The Islamic calendar starts on July 16, 622 A.D., an estimated date for Muhammad's flight (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina. Years in this calendar are designated A.H. for Anno Hegira or the Hijri year. Since the Islamic calendar is strictly lunar, it runs about eleven and one-quarter days shorter than a solar year; hence calculation of dates between this lunar and a solar calendar are complicated. The calendar used in this article is a solar calendar, the traditional western calendar being the Gregorian, with the years dating from an approximate birth date of Jesus, designated either B.C. for Before Christ, or A.D. for Anno Domini. Alternatively the western calendar can be renamed to sanction a secular modernism, a nominal neutrality, or otherwise, the years being called B.C.E. and C.E., for Common Era. The Arab conquest followed strategy designed by the Umayyad Caliphate regarding its long-term conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The native Berbers eventually converted to Islam. They might have seen some similarities between themselves and the Arabs, in similar cognate culture, such as familiarity with a pastoral way of life. The first local Islamic ruling house, the Aghlabids, consisted primarily of rule by leading members of this Arab tribe. Fundamental elements of Islamic civilization were established. Although accepting Islam, many Berbers nonetheless resisted rule by the Arabs, establishing the Rustamid kingdom following the Kharijite revolt. Next in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) arose the Shia Fatimids, inspired by a few immigrants from the east yet consisting for the most part of Ifriqiya Berbers. The Fatimids later expanded their rule east, through conquest by Berber armies of Egypt, and established their caliphate there which came to include Syria and the Hejaz.See History of Tunisia preview for general Geography and Climate of Tunisia.

Umayyad Caliphate in Ifriqiya

After the initial period of the four rightly-guided caliphs (632-661) following the death of Muhammad (570-632), the ruling family of the Umayyads took firm control of the new Muslim state. The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) ruled from the city of Damascus; their first Caliph Mu'awiya (602-680, r.661-680) directed Muslim forces in their on-going military contest with the Byzantine Empire. Decades earlier the Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt had fallen to Islamic arms. Under Mu'awiya the Umayyad Caliphate could see how the foreign lands west of Egypt figured in the "geo-political" and military strategy of this struggle. Hence there began the decades-long undertaking resulting in the Umayyad conquest of North Africa.Charles-André Julien, Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Payot 1931, 1952), translated as History of North Africa. Tunisia Algeria Morocco. From the Arab Conquest to 1830 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1970; New York: Praeger 1970)at 1-3. Julien discusses the "scanty information" available on the Arab Conquest, basically four "traditions" about this "heroic and legendary age". These sources are: (1) Waqadi, at Medina and Bagdad, end of the 8th century; (2) Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, at Cairo, 871; (3) an Andalusian (Spanish Moor) tradition of the 13th century; and, (4) a Tunisian tradition from Kairouan also of the 13th century. Later annalist, including Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (see below), seem to improve on these early traditions by applying their literary skill to coax out further details; not a generally approved or satisfactory method. Julian himself relies on the prior work of modern historians William Marçais and Émile Gautier.

Islamic conquest

In 670 an Arab Muslim army under Uqba ibn Nafi, who had commanded an earlier incursion in 666, entered the region of Ifriqiya (a newly coined Arabic word for the prior Roman Province of Africa). Marching overland the Arabs by-passed the fortified Byzantine positions along the Mediterranean coast. In the more arid south of Ifriqiya, the city of Kairouan (military outpost in Persian) was established as their base, and the building of its famous Mosque was begun. Then, from 675 to 682, Dinar ibn Abu al-Muhadjir took over direction of the Muslim invasion.H. Mones, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" 118-129, at 122-123, in I. Hrbek (ed.), General History of Africa, v.III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century (University of California/UNESCO 1992). Armed Berber forces constituted the main resistance to the Arabs. Apparently these Berbers were primarily composed of sedentary Christians from the Awreba tribe and perhaps also the Sanhadja confederation; they were led by Kusaila. In the late 670s, the Arab armies defeated these Berbers forces and made Kusaila their prisoner.Charles-André Julien, Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Payot 1952), translated as History of North Africa. Tunisia Algeria Morocco. From the Arab Conquest to 1830 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1970; New York: Praeger 1970)at 7, map at 9.Cf., H. Mones, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" 118-129, in I. Hrbek (editor), General History of Africa, v.III (University of California/UNESCO 1992). Professor Mones at 118-120 provides a description of the various Berber tribes of this period, their locations and alliances.

In 682, Uqba ibn Nafi resumed command. He defeated another alliance of Berber forces near Tahirt (Algeria), then proceeded westward in a long series of military triumphs, eventually reaching the Atlantic coast, where he is said to have lamented that before him lay no more lands to conquer for Islam. Episodes from Uqba's campaigns became legend throughout the Maghrib. Yet Kusaila, the Berber leader held prisoner, escaped. Later Kusaila organized and led a fresh Berber uprising, which interrupted the conquest and claimed the life of the famous Arab leader, Uqba. Kusaila then formed an enlarged Berber kingdom. Yet Zuhair b. Qais, the deputy of the fallen leader Uqba ibn Nafi, enlisted Zanata Berber tribes from Cyrenaica to fight for the cause of Islam, and in 686 managed to overrun, defeat, and terminate the kingdom newly formed by Kusaila.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 67-69.John K. Cooley, Baal, Christ, and Mohammed (New York: Holt Rinehart Winston 1965) at 64-69.A slightly different view of Kusaila (Kusayla) is given by H. Mones, in his "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" 118-129, at 123-124, in I. Hrbek (ed.), General History of Africa, v.III (1992). Mones relates that Kusayla converted to Islam at first but turned against Islam due to a perceived injustice, i.e., Islamic Arabs marching against Berber converts.

Under the Caliph 'Abd al-Malik (685-705), ruling from Damascus, the Umayyad conquest of North Africa was to advance close to completion. In Egypt a new army of forty thousand was assembled, to be commanded by Hassan ibn al-Nu'man (known to Arabs as "the honest old man"). Meanwhile, the weakened Byzantines managed to reinforce somewhat their positions. The Arab Muslim army crossed the Cyrene and Tripoli without opposition, then quickly attacked and captured Carthage.Cf., H. Mones, "Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" 118-129, at 125-126, in Hrbek (ed.), General History of Africa, v.III (1992).

The Berbers, however, continued to offer stiff resistance, then being led by a woman of the Jarawa tribe, whom the Muslims called "the prophetess" [al-Kahina in Arabic]; her actual name was approximately Damiya.Three citations may be given: Muhammed Talbi, "Un nouveau fragment de l'histoire de l'Occident musulman: l'épopée d'al Kahina" in Cahiers de Tunisie 19: 19-52 (1971); Abdelmajid Hannoum, Post-Colonial Memories. The Legend of Kahina, a North African heroine (2001); Yves Modéran, "Kahena" in Encyclopédie Berbère 27: 4102-4111. By a prior interpretation of Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), al-Kahina was seen as Jewish; yet this is now being understood as a misreading of Ibn Khaldun's text.Contra: André Chouraqui presents Kahina as Jewish in his Les Juifs d'Afrique du Nord. Entre l'Orient et l'Occident (Paris: Foundation Nat. de Sciences Politiques 1965), translated as Between East and West. A History of the Jews of North Africa (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society 1968; reprint New York: Atheneum 1973) at 34-37. "[T]he warrior-priestess Kahena... was the chief of the Jerawa tribe." "Later historians [were] unanimous in regarding [the Jerawa] as Jews." In telling of the color and controversy surrounding Kahena, Chouraqui cites Ibn Khaldun, and other and modern authors. Ibid. at 34, and notes 2-10 (at 328-329).Recently, Kahina has been called "some kind of Christian". Walter E. Kaegi, Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa (Cambridge University 2010) at 250, text at note 18, citing several medieval Arabic sources. On the river Nini, an alliance of Berbers under the Kahina Damiya sharply defeated the Muslim armies under al-Nu'man, who escaped then eastward, returning to Cyrenaica. Thereupon, the Byzantines took advantage of the Berber victory by reoccupying Carthage. Unlike the Berber Kusaila ten years earlier, Damiya did not establish a larger state, evidently being content to rule merely her own Jawara tribe. Some commentators speculate that, to the Kahina Damiya, the invading Arabs appeared primarily interested in booty, because she then commenced to sack and pillage the region, apparently to make it unattractive to raiders looking for the spoils of war; of course, it also made her own forces hotly unpopular to local inhabitants. Yet she did not attack the Muslim base at Kairouan. From Egypt in 698 the Caliph 'Abdul-Malik sent reinforcements to al-Nu'man, who then reentered Ifriqiya. Although she told her two sons to go over to the Arabs, she herself continued resistance and again gave battle. The fortunes of war deserted her, and al-Nu'man emerged victorious. It is said that at Bir al-Kahina [well of the prophetess] in the Auras mountains, Damiya was slain.Brett & Fentress, The Berbers (Oxford: Blackwell 1996) at 85.Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1952, 1961; New York 1970) at 11-13.John K. Cooley, Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1965) at 69-72.Welch, North African Prelude (New York: William Morrow 1949) at 189-194.Chouraqui, Between East and West. A History of the Jews of North Africa (Atheneum 1973) at 34-37.

In 705 Hassan b. al-Nu'man stormed Carthage, overcame and sacked it, leaving it destroyed. A similar fate befell the proximous city of Utica. At Tunis, a small town dating back to the Punic era, and situated near the ruins of Carthage, al-Numan founded a naval base. Muslim ships fitted for war began to assert dominance over the adjacent Mediterranean coast; hence the Byzantines then made their final withdrawal from North Africa. The Arabs called the region al-Maghrib: the "sunset land" or "the west". Then al-Nu'man was replaced as Muslim military leader by Musa ibn Nusair, who substantially completed the conquest of al-Maghrib. Ibn Nusair took the city of Tangier on the Atlantic coast, and appointed as its governor the Berber leader Tariq Abu Zara.Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 69-70.Compare: Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1952, 1961; New York 1970) at 13, 18. Tariq would lead the Muslim conquest of Hispania, begun in 711.Rober Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain (Oxford: Blackwell 1989, 1994) at 28-32.H. Mones, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" 118-129, at 127-128, in Hrbek (ed.), General History of Africa, v.III (1992).

Berber role