An instructional simulation, also called an educational simulation, is a simulation of some type of reality (system or environment) but which also includes instructional elements that help a learner explore, navigate or obtain more information about that system or environment that cannot generally be acquired from mere experimentation. Instructional simulations are typically goal oriented and focus learners on specific facts, concepts, or applications of the system or environment. Today, most universities make lifelong learning possible by offering a virtual learning environment (VLE). Not only can users access learning at different times in their lives, but they can also immerse themselves in learning without physically moving to a learning facility, or interact face to face with an instructor in real time. Such VLEs vary widely in interactivity and scope. For example, there are virtual classes, virtual labs, virtual programs, virtual library, virtual training, etc. Researchers have classified VLE in 4 types: 1st generation VLE: They originated in 1992, and provided the first on line course opportunities. They consisted in a collection of learning materials, discussion forums, testing and e-mail systems all accessible on line. This type of virtual environment was static, and did not allow for interaction among the different components of the system. 2nd generation VLE: Originated in 1996, these VLE are more powerful, both in data base integration and functions - planning and administrating, creating and supporting teaching materials, testing and analyzing results. Over 80 forms exist, including Learning Space, WebCT, Top Class, COSE, Blackboard, etc. 3rd generation VLE: The novelty of 3rd generation VLE is that they incorporate the newest technologies, accessible in real and non real time (synchronous and synchronous communications), such as audio and video conferences through the internet -‘one to one’ and ‘one to many’, collaboration features for work in groups, seminars, labs, forums, and of course the learning, development, planning, library and administrative functions. Stanford On-line, InterLabs, Classroom 2000 and the system "Virtual University" (VU) are examples of this VLE. 4th generation VLE: These are the environments of the future, and represent new learning paradigms, at the center of which are the user and the ‘global resources,’ as opposed to the teacher and the ‘local resources.’ Their main advantage is that learning materials can be created, adapted and personalized to the specific needs and function of each user. Few 4th generations VLE exist, most of them still being in the planning and developing phases. One example of supportive technology is called the ‘multi-agent technology,’ which allows the interface of data among different systems.Ivanova, Angel Smrikarov, A (2004). "Some Approaches to Implementation of Virtual Learning Environments. International Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies - CompSysTech’2004. Retrieved on 6/26/09 http://ecet.ecs.uni-ruse.bg/cst04/Docs/sIV/425.pdf
History Simulations of one form or another have been used since the early 1900s as a method for training or training. The United States Defense Modeling and Simulation Coordination Office identifies three main types of simulation: live, virtual, and constructive. Live (live action) and virtual simulations are primarily used for training purposes, whereas a constructive simulation is used to view or predict outcomes like wargaming or stockmarket behavior. Each of these types is based on some reality and is intended to provide the user with a pseudo-experience without the danger, expense, or complexity of real life.
While simulations are used for learning and training purposes, noted authors, such as Clark AldrichClark Aldrich and Andy GibbonsAndy Gibbons (Model-Centered Instruction) suggest that simulations in and of themselves are not instructional. Rather, a simulation only becomes instructional when instructional elements are included that help expose the learner to key parts or concepts of the system or environment. For example, an F-16 simulator is not inherently instructional because it is primarily intended to replicate the F-16 cockpit behavior and the environments the aircraft operates within. The simulator may be used for training purposes, but it requires an instructor or some other external element to identify key learning aspects of the system to the learner.
In education, simulations have had their use under a number of different names. Ken JonesKen Jones in the 1980s defined simulations as interactions between people such as role-playing. Others suggest that experiential learning activities like those found in team training or ropes courses are also simulations because they replicate the human decision-making processes groups may display, albeit in a very different environment. These can be considered instructional simulations because the effective use of these simulation types include using instructional elements to help learners focus on key behaviors, concepts or principles.
With the ever decreasing cost of computing tools, virtual and constructive simulation are being used more and more. Simulation is used more and more in e-learning environments because of improved Web-authoring tools and an increasing demand for performance-based training. As a result, more non-technical personnel are involved designing simulation, a field dominated by engineers and computer scientists.
Instructional design models for simulations Most traditional instructional design models have at least four components:Main, R. (1997). Integrating motivation into the design process. Educational Technology, 33(12), 38-39 Analysis – components usually included are a goal analysis, performance analysis, target population analysis, task analysis, media selection, and cost analysis. Design – including interface design, sequencing, lesson design, and learner control Development – a collaboration between programmers, graphic artists, writers, subject matter experts, and others during which the educational product is fully developed Implementation and Evaluation – delivering the final product to the learners and evaluating whether the goals were met.
ADDIE is an example of an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model.
Effectiveness of pedagogy When designing VLEs more functions need to be considered than in designing traditional learning modalities. The process of virtual learning consists of organizational, quality control, correctional and predictable procedures. For example, the effectiveness of the organization of student self-learning - called the ‘pedagogical and didactical function’ in VLEs, will depend on the following:
Online content that satisfies the requirements of subject matter standards, while at the same time allows engages students ‘interest in the process of learning. For example, open ended inquiry-based approaches to learning allow students to have some room to pursue individual interests. Level of interactivity of learning environment, to increase motivation and hands-on opportunities for learners. Simulation and animation provide excellent multisensory learning environments. Time management tools for the efficient assimilation of new materials. For example, availability of timetables, schedule of synchronous consultations, embedded hyperlinks for the ready access of information, etc. Maximization of activities that focus on student critical thinking, and information literacy skills, needed for the 21st century, such as acquisition, processing and synthesis of information. Communication modalities between teacher and student, peer to peer and learner to experts. The role of the instructor is that of an organizer, while the student is an initiator of the learning process.
A widely used format for designing online learning environments is WebQuest. However, there are today on the market newer models for instruction that are more interactive and integrated, such as Project Page, MiniQuest, CuriculumQuest, DecisionQuest. Reference: Jakes, D. (2003). "Creating Virtual Workspaces: New Models for Developing Online Curriculum". teachForum: Breakthrough Technologies for 21st century Schools, Chicago, Illinois. April 29, 2003. Retrieved on 6/28/09: http://www.biopoint.com/ibr/techforum.htm
Since the 1990s, trends such as the performance technology movement, constructivism, Electronic Performance Support Systems, rapid prototyping, increasing use of Internet for distance education/distance learning, and knowledge management endeavors have influenced instructional design practices These changes are producing challenges to existing design models. According to Reigeluth (1996), the education and training field is in the midst of a paradigm shift from the Industrial Revolution to the Information Age, requiring a corresponding shift from standardization to customization of instructional design. Moreover, Gros et al. (1997), posit the inflexibility of traditional linear design processes, calling for a more iterative process, while Winn (1997) and Jonassen et al. criticize the positivist assumptions that learning situations are closed systems, imparting knowledge is the instructor's responsibility, and that human behavior is predictable.Akilli, G. (2007). Games and simulations: A new approach in education? In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. Hershey PA: Information Science Pub. p. 9
There are many alternative models that have been proposed as more conducive to the new Information Age paradigm, including new methods of instruction such as instructional gaming and simulations – Jonassen's promotion of hermeneutics, fuzzy logic and chaos theory as bases for ID, Hoffman's use of Reigeleuth's Elaboration Theory and hypermedia, Akilli & Cagiltay's FIDGE model, among others.Akilli, 2007, 11
Hermeneutics, fuzzy logic, and chaos theory Hermeneutics emphasizes the importance of socio-historical context in mediating the meanings of individuals creating and decoding texts. Massively multiplayer online learning environments, for example, require new social processes that go well with social constructivist, hermeneutic philosophy and methods. Chaos theory looks for order in chaotic systems, looking for repeating patterns such as fractals. It is useful for non-linear, dynamic situations or for situations where a small change in initial conditions can produce great changes later. Finally, fuzzy logic is based on the idea that reality is rarely bivalent, but rather multivalent – in other words, there are many "in-between" values that need to be designed for. Therefore, instructional models should move away from deterministic approaches and design for more probabilistic ways of thinking.Jonassen, D. et al.(1997). Certainty, determinism, and predictability in theories of instructional design: Lessons from science. Educational Technology, 37(1), 27-34.
Elaboration theory (ET) and hypermedia Key aspects of ET are: A single organizing structure that reflects the primary focus of the course. Sequencing from simple to complex Sequence within the lesson: --For conceptually organized instruction "present the easiest, most familiar organizing concepts first" (p. 251). For procedures, "present the steps in order of their performance" For theoretically organized instruction, move from simple to complex. Place supporting content immediately after related organizing content. Adhere to learning prerequisite relationships in the content. Present coordinate concepts simultaneously rather than serially. Teach the underlying principle before its associated procedure.Wilson, B., & Cole, P. (1992). A critical review of elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40 (3), 63-79.