During the late Zhou dynasty, the inhabitants of the Central Plains began to distinguish between and (), referred to by some historians as the Sino–barbarian dichotomy. They defined themselves as part of the cultural and political region known as Huaxia, which they contrasted with the surrounding regions home to "outsiders", conventionally known as the "Four Barbarians" (literally, "four Yi"). Although Yi is usually translated as "barbarian", other translations of this term in English include "foreigners", "ordinary others", Liu believes the Chinese in early China did not originally think of Yi as a derogatory term. "wild tribes" and "uncivilized tribes". The Hua–Yi distinction asserted Chinese cultural superiority, but implied that outsiders could become Chinese by adopting their culture and customs, hence essentially not a racialized ideology. Some argue that contemporary Western Sinology is complicit with white supremacy, mistakenly imposing Western racist assumptions onto pre-modern China.
This distinction was not unique to the area today known as China, but was also applied by various Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean regimes in the Sinosphere, each of whom considered itself at one point in history to be a legitimate successor to Huaxia civilization.
Historical context
Ancient China was composed of a group of states that arose in the Yellow River valley. According to historian Li Feng, during the Zhou dynasty (), the contrast between the 'Chinese' Zhou and the 'non-Chinese' Xirong or Dongyi was "more political than cultural or ethnic".. Li explains that "Rong" meant something like "warlike foreigners" and "Yi" was close to "foreign conquerables". Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals became increasingly recognised as a "barometer of civilisation"; a meter for sophistication and cultural refinement. It is widely agreed by historians that the distinction between the Hua and the Yi emerged during that period.
Gideon Shelach claimed that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction between the Chinese and their northern neighbours, ignoring many intergroup similarities. Nicola di Cosmo doubted the existence of a strong demarcation between the "Zhou Universe" and "a discrete, 'barbarian', non-Zhou universe" and claimed that Chinese historian Sima Qian popularised this concept, writing of the "chasm that had 'always' existed between China – the Hua-Hsia [Huaxia] people – and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."
The conclusion of the Warring States period brought the first unified Chinese state—established by the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE—who established the imperial system and forcibly standardized the traditional Chinese script, leading to the first of the distinctions between the 'refined' Hua and the increasingly marginalised Yi. The Han dynasty (221 BCE–206 CE) further contributed to the divide with its creation of a persistent Han ethnocultural identity.
The Han Chinese civilisation influenced neighbouring states Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Thailand and other Asian countries. Although Han Chinese superiority had only been sporadically reinforced by displays of Chinese military power, their Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of the emperor of China, "the Son of Heaven" (), who was in possession of the Mandate of Heaven (), the divine right to rule. Areas outside Sinocentric influence and the divine rule of the Emperor were considered to consist of uncivilised lands inhabited by barbarians.
Throughout history, Chinese frontiers had been periodically attacked by nomadic tribes from the north, west and even south. These people were being labelled as barbarians by the Chinese who believed themselves to be more refined and who had begun to build cities and live an urban life based on agriculture. It was in an attempt of how best to deal with this problem that the philosopher, Confucius (551–479 BCE) was prompted to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his Analects.
Although China had been trading goods to and from Europeans for centuries, it was not until the arrival of the industrialised European trade and colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries that exposed Chinese civilisation to technological developments that had long outdated China's. As such, Chinese society was forced to undergo a modification of its traditional views of its relationships with "barbarians", and in particular could no longer regard everyone other than Chinese as objectively inferior uncultured barbarians.
Distinctions between Chinese and barbarian could be fluid. A Chinese or Chinese community could become "barbarian," or barbarians could become Chinese, through abandoning or adopting Chinese practices and thinking.
China Confucius lived during a time of war between Chinese states. He regarded people who did not respect the traditional value of li as "barbarians", as he believed the workings of a civilised state should be founded on ethical conduct, which he said must stem from li. Confucius argued that a state founded on the relatively cruel social codes of conquest and warlordism was barbaric in contrast to one founded on the principles of stately righteousness. In Analect 3.5, Confucius said, "The Yi and Di barbarian tribes with rulers are not as viable as the various Chinese states without them."
The Disposition of Error, a fifth-century tract defending Buddhism, notes that when Confucius was threatening to take residence among the nine barbarian states () he said, "If a gentleman-scholar dwells in their midst, what baseness can there be among them?""The Disposition of Error (c. 5th Century BCE)" City University of New York. Retrieved 11 Jan 2009 An alternate translation of the philosopher's Analect 9.14 is, "Someone said: 'They are vulgar. What can you do about them?' The Master said: 'A gentleman used to live there. How could they be vulgar?'" In both translations, the author is shown to believe in the superiority of the Hua culture over that of the Yi.
The prominent Shuowen Jiezi character dictionary (121 CE) defines yi as "level; peaceful" () or "people of eastern regions" () and does not attempt to marginalise them. This implies that the Hua-Yi distinction was not universally held.
Zhou dynasty The Bamboo Annals record that the founder of Zhou, King Wu of Zhou "led the lords of the western barbarians" on a journey to conquer the Shang dynasty, leading to the creation of the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou would later contribute as much as the Shang to the Hua–Yi distinction.
Not all Zhou regarded the Hua–Yi distinction as a cultural barrier that needed to be overcome to 'purify' China. Zhou philosopher Mencius believed that Confucian practices were universal and timeless, and thus, followed by both Hua and Yi people.
Jin dynasty In order to alleviate the shortages of labour caused by the Three Kingdoms wars, the Jin allowed millions of "barbarian" people to reside in Jin territory. Many officials opposed this decision in the name of the Hua–Yi distinction, claiming that if the barbarians did not identify with the Huaxia, they would conspire to destroy the empire.
Sixteen Kingdoms
During the Uprising of the Five Barbarians () and ravaging of North China that occurred at the start of the 4th century, the Jin dynasty and other ethnic Han appealed to entrenched beliefs in the Hua–Yi distinction when calling for resistance to the Five Barbarians and the Yi they represented. The Jin was eventually driven out of the north and relocated south of the Yangtze River. The historians of the Southern dynasties, who were all Han Chinese, portrayed the non-Han rulers as barbaric.
Meanwhile, the "Five Barbarians", who founded several of the Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China and Sichuan, often had to cooperate with the local Han people to consolidate their rules. The first two of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Han-Zhao and Cheng-Han dynasties, adopted the Chinese ruling systems and customs, with the former initially claiming to be a continuation of the Han dynasty. The Xianbei-led Former Yan rose to prominence partly due to their acceptance and employment of Han Chinese emigres within their administration, while Fu Jian of the Di-led Former Qin is most famous for his partnership with his Chinese Prime Minister, Wang Meng and his strong dedication to Confucian principles.
Still, tension between the Han Chinese and the non-Han was evident at times. The Han-Zhao first introduced the to administer the affairs of the non-Han tribes separate from the Han Chinese, and the system was later adopted by many of the Sixteen Kingdoms, thus upholding the Hua–Yi distinction. Relations were especially tense in northern China under the Later Zhao dynasty, which culminated in racial violence during the final years of the empire.
Ran Min's order to kill the "barbarians"
The Later Zhao dynasty was founded the Shi clan of Jie ethnicity, who had a practice of heavily adopting people into their family. One of these people was Shi Min (later named Ran Min), a Han Chinese who was the adoptive grandson of Later Zhao's third ruler, Shi Hu. In 349 CE, after his promise to be made Crown Prince was reneged, Shi Min seized control of the emperor and the capital, Ye. Due to multiple attempts on his life, he soon became apprehensive of the non-Han tribes and ordered the Han people to slaughter the Jie people and other barbarians, identifying them by their high noses and full beards. Around 200,000 people were killed, with the Jie soon disappearing from history, but a large number of victims were also mistakenly-identified Han Chinese people. After Ran Min founded his state of Ran Wei in 350, he attempted to win back the support of the tribes, but in 352, his regime was toppled by the Xianbei-led Former Yan dynasty.
Ran Min continues to be a controversial figure. He is considered by some to be a hero, whereas others believe he bore extreme prejudice arising from the Hua–Yi distinction.
Northern Wei dynasty Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (a state that controlled the north of China), who was of the Xianbei people attempted to eliminate Yi from his state by imposing Sinicisation on his people. The Xianbei language was outlawed and Xianbei people began to adopt surnames of the Han ethnicity; for example, the ruling clan of the Northern Wei originally bore the surname Tuoba but it was abandoned in favor of Yuan.
Sui dynasty In 581, the Sui emperor Yang Jian deposed the Xianbei ruler of Northern Zhou and restored Han rule over North China. This event marked the end of all power that the Xianbei and other non-Han groups had over China, and racial tension subsided.
Tang dynasty
During the Tang dynasty, various ethnic groups including Koreans, Indians and Tibetans journeyed to Chang'an and other major Tang cities for business or study. These people brought their religions and customs: Buddhism, Islam, Zoroastrianism (Xianjiao), Manichaeism (Monijiao) and Syriac Christianity (Jingjiao), all of which flourished.