In the Vedic and Hindu religions, Brahman (; IAST: Brahman) has a "variety of meanings", but in the Upanishads and later Indian philosophies it connotes 'That' from which all existence proceeds, and to which everything returns, the origin and cause of all that exists.Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, , pages 43–44For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, , pages 51–58, 111–115;For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35 In contemporary Hindu metaphysics it is the highest universal principle, the Ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
Brahman is a concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads, with a variety of meanings.Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, , pages 1–4 According to Gavin Flood, the concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words, and rituals in Vedic times to the "deeper foundation of all phenomena," the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)," and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference." Other scholars such as Barbara Holdrege, Hananya Goodman, and Jan Gonda, contend that the earliest Vedic verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.See Rigveda Chapter 1.164;Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, , pages 34–35
In the Upanishads, the concept of Brahman evolves to encompass metaphysical, ontological, and soteriological themes. Brahman is described as the unchanging "primordial reality" that creates, sustains, and ultimately withdraws the universe within itself,John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press. the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated. Brahman is also portrayed as the "divine being" or "Lord," which may manifest as either a distinct deity or as an immanent presence within all individuals. It represents the "knowledge" that leads to spiritual liberation, the "Self."Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581; pages 358, 371; pages 305, 476; pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851; pages 211, 741–742; pages 308–311, 497–499; pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850; pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851; pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708; pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts in relation to the concept of Atman (, 'Self'), personal, impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, , pages 124–127Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, , pages 155–157 In non-dual schools such as the Advaita Vedanta, the substance of Brahman is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86John E. Welshons (2009), One Self, One Love, One Heart, New World Library, , pages 17–18
Etymology and related terms
Sanskrit (ब्रह्मन्) Brahman (an n-stem, nominative , from a root - "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge") is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine —denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from Brahmā, the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world", while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".
In Vedic Sanskrit: Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuterNot Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender). gender) from root bṛh-, means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268–269 Brahmana (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems brha (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit -man- which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".
In later Sanskrit usage: Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. Brahmā (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singular), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and is associated with creation, but he does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa.
These are distinct from: A brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced ), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. A brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, Brahmāṇi. See Vedic priest. Ishvara, (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and is the source of the impersonal Brahman. Devas, the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas.
History and literature
Vedic Brahman is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas, the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example,
The concept Brahman is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature. The word Brahma is found in Rig veda hymns such as 2.2.10, 6.21.8, 10.72.2 and in Atharva veda hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131. The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example: Aitareya Brahmana 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya Aranyaka 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the vedāṅga (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.
Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of Brahman in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning". There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word Brahman in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda. In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of Brahman is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.
Barbara Holdrege states that the concept Brahman is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (Sabdabrahman), as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, , page 24 Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists. Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 84–85
Upanishads
The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person. The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.
The concept of Brahman in the Upanishads evolves to encompass metaphysical, ontological, and soteriological themes. Brahman is described as the "primordial reality" that creates, sustains, and ultimately withdraws the universe within itself. It is characterized as the "principle of the world," the "absolute," the "universal" force, the "cosmic principle," and the "ultimate cause" of all existence, including gods. Brahman is also portrayed as the "divine being" or "Lord," which may manifest as either a distinct deity or as an immanent presence within all individuals. It represents the "knowledge" that leads to spiritual liberation, the "Self" that is fearless, luminous, exalted, and blissful, and the "essence" of freedom. Brahman is not only the universe within every living being but also the universe beyond, representing both the internal and external worlds in their entirety. .Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 358, 371Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 305, 476Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 211, 741–742Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 308–311, 497–499Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777