Sanskrit has an elaborate system of nominal morphology. Endings may be added directly to the root, or more frequently and especially in the later language, to a stem formed by the addition of a suffix to it.Burrow, §4.1.
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language that preserves all the declensional types found in Proto-Indo-European, including a few residual heteroclitic r/n-stems.Fortson, §10.46.Burrow, §5.2.
Basics
Declension of a noun in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': three numbers and eight cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number is around 18 or so.Bucknell, p. 11. Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.
In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:Bucknell, p. 12-16.Whitney, §261–266.
+ 1 3 numbers singular, dual, plural 2 3 genders masculine, feminine, neuter 3 8 cases nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative
Building blocks
Roots
The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Sanskrit, especially the older form of Indo-Aryan termed Vedic Sanskrit.Burrow, §4.2
+ Ancient noun roots in kindred languages Sanskrit Latin PIE Gloss pā́d- pē(d)s, ped- *póds foot vā́c- vōx, vōc- *wṓkʷs speech rā́j- rēx, rēg- *h₃rḗǵs king, ruler
Stems
In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.
Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated as a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor.Fortson, §6.43.Burrow, §4.3
Cases
Sanskrit nouns are declined for eight cases:
nominative: marks the subject of a verb. accusative: used for the direct object of a transitive verb. instrumental: marks the means by which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action, physically or abstractly. dative: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb. ablative: used to express motion away from something. genitive: marks a noun as modifying another noun. locative: corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by. vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee.Fortson, §6.
The kāraka classification
In the ancient literature, Pāṇini identified six classes as kārakas, operating as accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, and locative cases. He defined them as follows (Aṣtādhyāyi, I.4.24–54):
Kartā : 'he/that which is independent in action'. This is equivalent to the nominative case. Karman : 'what the agent seeks most to attain': the accusative. 'that which effects most': the instrumental. Sampradāna : 'he whom one aims at with the object': the dative. Apādāna : '(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)': the ablative. : or 'substratum': the locative.
Pāṇini did not identify the genitive Sambandha and vocative Sambodhana as kārakas.S.C. Vasu, The Astadhyayi of Pāṇini
Endings
The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.
However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi, such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r and so on.MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.Whitney, §164–179.
SingularDualPluralMasc./FemNeu.Masc./FemNeu.Masc./FemNeu.Nominative -s-∅-au-ī-as-iAccusative -amInstrumental-ā-bhyām-bhisDative-e-bhyasAblative-asGenitive-os-āmLocative-i-suVocative -∅ -au -ī -as -i
Declension
Classification Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:
Short-vowel stems a-stems i/u-stems ṛ-stems Long-vowel stems ā-stems ī/ū-stems Diphthong stems Consonant stems Bare stems (root-stems) as/is/us-stems an/in-stems ant/mant/vant-stems (present active participles, etc.) vāṃs-stems (perfect active participles)
When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms. This happens most profusely in the a-stem class. However, for reasons noted below, grammars both traditional and modern tend to start with this class.Whitney, §321–322.Fortson, §10.46.Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
a-stems
The vast majority of nouns in Sanskrit belong to this class, and are masculine or neuter. The position of the accent is maintained throughout, except in the masculine vocative singular. The paradigms are illustrated in their pre-sandhi forms, along with the formation treatment using two stems in the masculine devá- and kā́ma- and two in the neuter yugá- and phála- with different syllables accented.Whitney, §326–331.Bucknell, p. 19-22.MM-W, p. 271, 492, 716,846.Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
a-stem adjectives are also to be found in big numbers, they are invariably masculine or neuter – feminines being formed either in -ā or, less frequently -ī. a-stem adjectives are also declined as below.Whitney, §332.
+ a-stem masc singular Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dev·á- kā́m·a- Nominative -s -a- + -s -as dev·á·s kā́m·a·s Accusative -am -a- + -am -am dev·á·m kā́m·a·m Instrumental -ā -ā -ena -ena dev·éna kā́m·ena Dative -e -a- + -a- + e + a -āya dev·ā́ya kā́m·āya Ablative -as -as -āt -āt dev·ā́t kā́m·āt Genitive -as -as + ya -asya dev·ásya kā́m·asya Locative -i -a- + -i -e dev·é kā́m·e Vocative -Ø – -a dév·a kā́m·a
+ a-stem masc dual Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dev·á- kā́m·a- Nominative Accusative Vocative -au -au -au dev·áu kā́m·au Instrumental Dative Ablative -bhyām -ā- + bhyām -ābhyām dev·ā́bhyām kā́m·ābhyām Genitive Locative -os -a- + -y- + -os -ayos dev·á·yos kā́m·a·yos
+ a-stem masc plural Case Std Ending Treatment Ending dev·á- kā́m·a- Nominative, Vocative -as -a- + -as -ās dev·ā́s kā́m·ās Accusative -as as -ān (-āṅs) -ān (-āṅs ) dev·ā́n kā́m·ān Instrumental -bhis -bhis -ais -ais dev·aís kā́m·ais Dative Ablative -bhyas -a- + -i- + -bhyas -ebhyas dev·ébhyas kā́m·ebhyas Genitive -ām -ā- + -n- + ām -ānām dev·ā́nām kā́m·ānām Locative -su -a- + -i- + su -eṣu dev·éṣu kā́m·eṣu
Neuters only differ from the masculine in the nominative, accusative and vocative forms, the three forms always being the same: + a-stem neuter sing, dual, plu Case Std Ending Treatment Ending yug·á- phál·a- Nom, Acc, Voc SG -Ø -a- + -m -am yug·á·m phál·a·m Nom, Acc, Voc DU -ī -a- + -ī -e yug·é phál·e Nom, Acc, Voc PL -i -a- + an + -i -āni yug·ā́ni phál·āni
i- and u-stems i-stems
Final i-stem endings are closer to the standard set compared to the a-stem declension. In general, the -i is gunated in some cases, and -n- is inserted intervocalically between the stem and the ending in a few other cases, especially in the neuter. The paradigms are illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms for masculine agní- , feminine gáti- and neuter vā́ri- .Whitney, §335–339.Bucknell, p. 19-23.
+ i-stem masc/fem Case Std Ending Treatment Ending agní- gáti- Nom -s – -s agní·s gáti·s Acc -am -am -m agní·m gáti·m Ins -ā -n- + -ā – -nā -ā agní-nā gáty·ā Da -e guna(i) + e -aye agn·áy·e gát·ay·e Abl, Gen -as guna(i) + s -i- + -a- + -as -es agn·és gát·es gáty·ās Loc -i -i -au -au agn·aú gát·au Voc -Ø – -e ágn·e gát·e Case Std Ending Treatment Ending agní- gáti- N.A.V -au -au -ī -ī agn·ī́ gát·ī I.D.A -bhyām – -bhyām agní·bhyām gáti·bhyām Gen, Loc -os -i- + -os -yos agny·ós gáty·os Case Std Ending Treatment Ending agní- gáti- Nom, Voc -as guna(i) + -as -ayas agn·áy·as gát·ay·as Acc -as as -īn (-īṅs) -īn (-īṅs ) agn·ī́n gát·īn Ins -bhis – -bhis agní·bhis gáti·bhis Dat, Abl -bhyas – -bhyas agní·bhyas gáti·bhyas Gen -ām -ī + -n- ām -īnām agn·īnā́m gát·īnām Loc -su – -su agní·ṣu gáti·ṣu
Neuters as always remain identical in the nominative and accusative, and also in the vocative. In the other cases, a -n- is inserted between the stem and the standard endings in all those cases where to avoid a collision of two vowels, making the whole process almost perfectly straightforward. + i-stem neut Case Std Ending Treatment Ending vā́ri- N.A.V -Ø – -Ø vā́ri Ins -ā -n- -nā vā́ri·ṇ·ā Dat -e -n- -ne vā́ri·ṇ·e Abl,Gen -as -n- -nas vā́ri·ṇ·as Loc -i -n- -ni vā́ri·ṇ·i Case Std Ending Treatment Ending vā́ri- N.A.V -ī -n- -nī vā́ri·ṇ·ī I.D.A -bhyām – -bhyām vā́ri·bhyām Gen, Loc -os -n- -nos vā́ri·ṇ·os Case Std Ending Treatment Ending vā́ri- N.A.V -i -īni -īni vā́rī·ṇ·i Ins -bhis – -bhis vā́ri·bhis Dat, Abl -bhyas – -bhyas vā́ri·bhyas Gen -ām -ī + -n- ām -īnām vā́r·īṇām Loc -su – -su vā́ri·ṣu
u-stems
i- and u-stem declensions are so similar that they can be grouped together. The u-stem paradigms illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms are for masculine śátru- , feminine dhenú- and neuter mádhu- .Whitney, §335–342.Bucknell, p. 19-24.
+ u-stem masc/fem Case Std Ending Treatment Ending śátru- dhenú- Nom -s – -s śátru·s dhenú·s Acc -am -am -m śátru·m dhenú·m Ins -ā -n- + -ā – -nā -ā śátru-ṇā dhenv·ā̀ Dat -e guna(u) + e -ave śátr·av·e dhen·áv·e Abl, Gen -as guna(u) + s -u- + -a- + -as -os śátr·os dhen·ós dhenv·ā̀s Loc -i -i -au -au śátr·au dhen·aú Voc -Ø – -o śátr·o dhen·ó Case Std Ending Treatment Ending śátru- dhenú- N.A.V -au -au -ū -ū śátr·ū dhen·ū́ I.D.A -bhyām – -bhyām śátru·bhyām dhenú·bhyām Gen, Loc -os -u- + -os -vos śátrv·os dhenv·ós Case Std Ending Treatment Ending śátru- dhenú- Nom, Voc -as guna(u) + -as -avas śátr·av·as dhen·áv·as Acc -as as -ūn (-ūṅs) -ūs -ūn (-ūṅs ) -ūs śátr·ūn dhen·ū́s Ins -bhis – -bhis śátru·bhis dhenú·bhis Dat, Abl -bhyas – -bhyas śátru·bhyas dhenú·bhyas Gen -ām -ū + -n- ām -ūnām śátr·ūṇām dhen·ūnā́m Loc -su – -su śátru·ṣu dhenú·ṣu
Neuters are also just as straightforward as for i-stems.
+ u-stem neut Case Std Ending Treatment Ending mádhu- N.A.V -Ø – -Ø mádhu Ins -ā -n- -nā mádhu·n·ā Dat -e -n- -ne mádhu·n·e Abl, Gen -as -n- -nas mádhu·n·as Loc -i -n- -ni mádhu·n·i Case Std Ending Treatment Ending mádhu- N.A.V -ī -n- -nī mádhu·n·ī I.D.A -bhyām – -bhyām mádhu·bhyām Gen, Loc -os -n- -nos mádhu·n·os Case Std Ending Treatment Ending mádhu- N.A.V -i -i -ūni -ūni mádhū·n·i Ins -bhis – -bhis mádhu·bhis Dat, Abl -bhyas – -bhyas mádhu·bhyas Gen -ām -ū + -n- ām -ūnām mádh·ūnām Loc -su – -su mádhu·ṣu
i- and u-stem adjectives are a small class of so-called primary adjectives, such as bahus, -us, -u and śucis, -is, -i , as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become vī.Whitney, §344.
ṛ-stems ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ , though also include kinship terms like pitṛ , mātṛ , and svasṛ .Whitney, §369–373 The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.