The Cariban languages are a family of languages Indigenous to north-eastern South America. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of the Amazon River to the Colombian Andes, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people. Macushi is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—Hixkaryana—has a default word order of object–verb–subject. Prior to their discovery of this, linguists presumed that this order did not exist in any spoken natural language.
Genetic relations The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with the Jê and Tupian families. Ribeiro connects them all in a Je–Tupi–Carib family. Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.
Language contact Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana, Nambikwara, Taruma, Warao, Arawak, Bororo, Jeoromitxi, Karaja, Rikbaktsa, and Tupi language families due to contact.
Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various Macro-Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the Lower Amazon region (rather than in the Guiana Highlands). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River.
Family division The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)."Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the World’s Languages (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.
Previous classifications Good data had been collected on most Cariban languages by ; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on Kaufman 1994) are unreliable.
Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language.Desmond Derbyshire, 1999. "Carib". In Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., The Amazonian Languages. CUP.
Cariban Galibi [Kaliña] (N) Guiana Carib (Taranoan): Trio: Tiriyó–Akuriyó , Salumá (N), Carijona–Hianákoto (S) Kashuyana: Sikiana (N), Kaxuiâna [Warikyana] (S) Waiwai: Hixkaryána (S), Waiwai (N) Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches North Amazonian Carib: Yawaperi: Atruahí [Atrowari, Waimiri] (N) Pemong: Macushi–Pemon [Arekuna], Akawaio–Patamona (= Kapong, Ingariko) (N) Paravilyana: Pawishiana Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches, adding Purukotó to Pemong; Boanarí to Atruahí; Paravilyana and Sapará to Pawishiana Central Carib: Wayana–Apalaí (N) Maquiritari [Dekwana] (S) Mapoyo–Yabarana–Pémono (N) Kaufman adds Chaima [Kumaná]; Arakajú (to Wayana); Yao and Tiverikoto ; Wajumará (to Makiritare) Tamanaku is close to Mapoyo South Amazonian Carib: Bakairi: Bakairí, Kuikúro [Kalapálo, Amonap], Matipuhy [Nahukwa] (S) Arara: Txikão [Ikpeng, Chikaon], Arára [Pará] (N) To Arara Kaufman adds extinct Juma , Apiaká-Apingi , Yarumá Yukpa: Japrería (N) Yukpa (N) Coyaima (N) Panare (N) Opon [Opón-Karare] Unclassified: Pimenteira Palmela
The extinct Patagón de Perico language of northern Peru also appears to have been a Cariban language, perhaps close to Carijona. Yao is so poorly attested that Gildea believes it may never be classified.
Loukotka (1968) Below is a full list of Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
Western languages: Caraib / Calinago / Karib – language spoken by the insular and continental Caraibes, with many dialects: Dialect of the insular Caraibes, once spoken on the Lesser Antilles Islands, now by only a few old individuals in a reserve on the island of Dominica. Dialect of Pomeroon / Caribisi / Acarabisi – spoken on the Macarani River and Pomeroon River, Guyana. Tabare / Cariña – dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the villages of El Guasey, Cachipo, Cachama, and San Joaquín de Parire (Mapicure) in the state of Anzoátegui and in the village of Tapaquire in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela. Caribe – extinct dialect once spoken by the descendants of Caraibes and by the mixed population on the plains of Barcelona, states of Monagas and Anzoátegui, Venezuela. Carif / Moreno – dialect combined with Arawakan, spoken by the Negro Indian mixed population of British Honduras, in Guatemala on the Gulf of Honduras, and on Roatan Island in Honduras, Central America. Cariniaco – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Caura River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. Mayé – extinct dialect once spoken on the Casipore River, Amapá territory, Brazil. (Unattested.) Paracoto – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Araguari River, Amapá and at the mouth of the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Carane – once spoken at the old mission of São Paulo d'Oiapoque, Amapá territory. (Unattested.) Norac / Norag – once spoken on the Approuague River, French Guiana, later on the Anotarí River; now extinct. (Unattested.) Itutan – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River and in the Serra Lombard, Amapá. (Unattested.) Curucuane – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River, south of the Itutan tribe. (Unattested.) Aricarí – once spoken near the Curucuane tribe on the lower course of the Calçoene River. (Unattested.) Sapai – once spoken on the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Piriou – once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Oyapoque River. (Unattested.) Mersiou – once spoken on the Aratye River, Inini River, and Aua River, French Guiana, now probably extinct. (Unattested.) Acoqua – once spoken at the sources of the Approuague River, and on the Camopi River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Wai – spoken on the Tamouri River, French Guiana; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) Taira – spoken in the same colony as the Wai tribe on the Iracoubo River. (Unattested.) Acuria – originally spoken on the Nickerie River and Coppename River, Suriname; now on the Berbice River, Guyana. (Unattested.) Chacoi – spoken by a few mixed individuals between the Berbice River and Essequibo River, Guyana. (Unattested.) Parabaiana – once spoken on the middle course of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Caicuchiana – once spoken in French Guiana, south of the Parabaiana tribe. (Unattested.)
Eastern languages Waiana / Oayana – spoken on the Palumeu River and Lawa River, Suriname, and on the Jarí River and Paru River, state of Pará, Brazil; once also between the Maroni River and Marouini River, French Guiana. Amicuan – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Upurui – once spoken on the upper course of the Jarí River, now by a few individuals at the sources of the Parú de Leste River, state of Pará, Brazil. Apalai / Aparai – spoken on the middle course of the Parú de Leste River and between this river and the upper course of the Maicuru River, Pará. Carapeuara – extinct language once spoken in the state of Pará south of the Apama tribe on the Maicuru River. (Unattested.) Palanc – extinct language once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Apima River and Yaroupi River and on the Unani River. (Unattested.) Rucuyene – extinct language once spoken in the same colony on the Lawa River. Noyene – once spoken on the Cuc River, state of Pará. (Unattested.) Yapacoye – once spoken on the left bank of the Itany River, French Guiana. (Unattested.) Aracajú / Uaraguazú – extinct language mixed with many Tupi elements, once spoken on the Gurupamba River and Parú de Leste River, Pará.
Trio group Trio / Diáu / Tirió – spoken on the Tapanahoni River, Corentijn River, and Palumeu River, Suriname, and between the sources of the Parú de Leste River and Parú de Oeste River, state of Pará. Urucuyana / Waiano – spoken on the left bank of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. Wama – spoken by a wild tribe at the sources of the Oelemari River, Suriname. Tliometesen / Oyaricule – spoken by a few individuals between the Litani River and Tapanahoni River, Suriname. Ocomayana / Kumayena / Comayana – spoken at the sources of the Coeroeni River, Suriname, and at the sources of the Oronoque River in Guyana. Pianocoto – once spoken at the sources of the Trombetas River and the Jamunda River, now at the mouth of the Marapi River in the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. Aramihoto – spoken by a small tribe in Suriname on the upper course of the Coeroeni River. (Unattested.) Prohyana – spoken in the same colony in the Eilerts de Haan Gebergte. (Unattested.) Maipuridjana – spoken in Suriname on the Sipaliwini River. (Unattested.) Rangú – spoken at the sources of the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. Acuriyo – spoken at the sources of the Tapanahoni River, Suriname. (Unattested.) Aramisho – spoken on the upper course of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. (Unattested.) Aramayana – spoken by the southern neighbors of the Aramisho tribe. (Unattested.) Aramagoto – spoken between the upper courses of the Parú de Leste River and the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. (Unattested.) Pianoi – spoken at the sources and on the upper course of the Citaré River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Chiquena group Chiquena / Shikiana – spoken on the Apiniwau River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Panemá River, Pará. (Farabee 1924, pp. 195–196.) Zurumata – once spoken in a village of the same name on the upper course of the Trombetas River, Pará, now probably extinct. (Unattested.) Ingarüne – spoken at the sources of the Panemá River and its tributaries. (Unattested.) Salumá / Charúma – spoken between the upper courses of the Trombetas River, Uanabé River, and Tunúru River, Pará. Prehnoma – spoken by a small tribe west of the Pianocoto tribe. (Unattested.) Caicusiana – spoken on the Tunúru River south of the Salumá tribe. (Unattested.) Tunayana – spoken between the middle courses of the Panemá River and Tunúru River. (Unattested.) Sereu – spoken east of the sources of the Cachorro River. (Unattested.) Cahuyana – spoken on the middle course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.) Marachó – spoken by an unknown tribe on the middle course of the Cuminá River. (Unattested.) Pauxi / Pawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the middle course of the Erepecurú River (Cuminá River); now perhaps extinct. Waríkyana – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.) Uayeué – spoken on the Mapuera River and its tributary Urubú de Silves River. Cachuena / Kaxiuâna / Casiana / Cachoarí – spoken by a few families at the mouth of the Cachorro River. Mutuan – once spoken on the lower course of the Nhamundá River. Cariguano – once spoken on the Panemá River. (Unattested.) Conduri – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.) Paraugoaru – extinct language once spoken on the Capó River, a tributary of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Waiwai group Waiwai / Woaywai – spoken at the sources of the Essequibo River, Guyana and at the sources of the Mapuera River, state of Pará, Brazil. Faranakaru – spoken at the sources of the Mapuera River south of the Waiwai tribe. (Unattested.) Faranauaru – spoken on the left bank of the Mapuera River. (Unattested.)