An S-type star (or just S star) is a cool giant star with approximately equal quantities of carbon and oxygen in its atmosphere. The class was originally defined in 1922 by Paul Merrill for stars with unusual absorption lines and molecular bands now known to be due to s-process elements. The bands of zirconium monoxide (ZrO) are a defining feature of the S stars.
The carbon stars have more carbon than oxygen in their atmospheres. In most stars, such as class M giants, the atmosphere is richer in oxygen than carbon and they are referred to as oxygen-rich stars. S-type stars are intermediate between carbon stars and normal giants. They can be grouped into two classes: intrinsic S stars, which owe their spectra to convection of fusion products and s-process elements to the surface; and extrinsic S stars, which are formed through mass transfer in a binary system.
The intrinsic S-type stars are on the most luminous portion of the asymptotic giant branch, a stage of their lives lasting less than a million years. Many are long period variable stars. The extrinsic S stars are less luminous and longer-lived, often smaller-amplitude semiregular or irregular variables. S stars are relatively rare, with intrinsic S stars forming less than 10% of asymptotic giant branch stars of comparable luminosity, while extrinsic S stars form an even smaller proportion of all red giants.
Spectral features Cool stars, particularly class M, show molecular bands, with titanium(II) oxide (TiO) especially strong. A small proportion of these cool stars also show correspondingly strong bands of zirconium oxide (ZrO). The existence of clearly detectable ZrO bands in visual spectra is the definition of an S-type star.
The main ZrO series are: α series, in the blue at 464.06 nm, 462.61 nm, and 461.98 nm β series, in the yellow at 555.17 nm and 571.81 nm γ series, in the red at 647.4 nm, 634.5 nm, and 622.9 nm
The original definition of an S star was that the ZrO bands should be easily detectable on low dispersion photographic spectral plates, but more modern spectra allow identification of many stars with much weaker ZrO. MS stars, intermediate with normal class M stars, have barely detectable ZrO but otherwise normal class M spectra. SC stars, intermediate with carbon stars, have weak or undetectable ZrO, but strong sodium D lines and detectable but weak C2 bands.
S star spectra also show other differences to those of normal M class giants. The characteristic TiO bands of cool giants are weakened in most S stars, compared to M stars of similar temperature, and completely absent in some. Features related to s-process isotopes such as YO bands, Sr lines, Ba lines, and LaO bands, and also sodium D lines are all much stronger. However, VO bands are absent or very weak. The existence of spectral lines from the period 5 element technetium (Tc) is also expected as a result of the s-process neutron capture, but a substantial fraction of S stars show no sign of Tc. Stars with strong Tc lines are sometimes referred to as technetium stars, and they can be of class M, S, C, or the intermediate MS and SC.
Some S stars, especially Mira variables, show strong hydrogen emission lines. The Hβ emission is often unusually strong compared to other lines of the Balmer series in a normal M star, but this is due to the weakness of the TiO band that would otherwise dilute the Hβ emission.
Classification schemes
The spectral class S was first defined in 1922 to represent a number of long-period variables (meaning Mira variables) and stars with similar peculiar spectra. Many of the absorption lines in the spectra were recognised as unusual, but their associated elements were not known. The absorption bands now recognised as due to ZrO are clearly listed as major features of the S-type spectra. At that time, class M was not divided into numeric sub-classes, but into Ma, Mb, Mc, and Md. The new class S was simply left as either S or Se depending on the existence of emission lines. It was considered that the Se stars were all LPVs and the S stars were non-variable, but exceptions have since been found. For example, π1 Gruis is now known to be a semiregular variable.
The classification of S stars has been revised several times since its first introduction, to reflect advances in the resolution of available spectra, the discovery of greater numbers of S-type stars, and better understanding of the relationships between the various cool luminous giant spectral types.
Comma notation The formalisation of S star classification in 1954 introduced a two-dimensional scheme of the form SX,Y. For example, R Andromedae is listed as S6,6e.
X is the temperature class. It is a digit between 1 (although the smallest type actually listed is S1.5) and 9, intended to represent a temperature scale corresponding approximately to the sequence of M1 to M9. The temperature class is actually calculated by estimating intensities for the ZrO and TiO bands, then summing the larger intensity with half the smaller intensity.
Y is the abundance class. It is also a digit between 1 and 9, assigned by multiplying the ratio of ZrO and TiO bands by the temperature class. This calculation generally yields a number which can be rounded down to give the abundance class digit, but this is modified for higher values: 6.0 – 7.5 maps to 6 7.6 – 9.9 maps to 7 10.0 – 50 maps to 8 > 50 maps to 9
In practice, spectral types for new stars would be assigned by referencing to the standard stars, since the intensity values are subjective and would be impossible to reproduce from spectra taken under different conditions.
A number of drawbacks came to light as S stars were studied more closely and the mechanisms behind the spectra came to be understood. The strengths of the ZrO and TiO are influenced both by temperature and by actual abundances. The S stars represent a continuum from having oxygen slightly more abundant than carbon to carbon being slightly more abundant than oxygen. When carbon becomes more abundant than oxygen, the free oxygen is rapidly bound into CO and abundances of ZrO and TiO drop dramatically, making them a poor indicator in some stars. The abundance class also becomes unusable for stars with more carbon than oxygen in their atmospheres.
This form of spectral type is a common type seen for S stars, possibly still the most common form.
Elemental intensities The first major revision of the classification for S stars completely abandons the single-digit abundance class in favour of explicit abundance intensities for Zr and Ti. So R And is listed, at a normal maximum, with a spectral type of S5e Zr5 Ti2.
In 1979 Ake defined an abundance index based on the ZrO, TiO, and YO band intensities. This single digit between 1 and 7 was intended to represent the transition from MS stars through increasing C/O ratios to SC stars. Spectral types were still listed with explicit Zr and Ti intensity values, and the abundance index was included separately in the list of standard stars.
+Abundance index criteria and estimated C/O ratio Abundance index Criteria C/O ratio 1 TiO ≫ ZrO and YO< 0.90 2 TiO ≥ ZrO ≥ 2×YO0.90 3 2×YO ≥ ZrO ≥ TiO0.93 4 ZrO ≥ 2×YO > TiO0.95 5 ZrO ≥ 2×YO, TiO = 0> 0.95 6 ZrO weak, YO and TiO = 0~ 1 7 CS and carbon stars> 1
Slash notation The abundance index was immediately adopted and extended to run from 1 to 10, differentiating abundances in SC stars. It was now quoted as part of the spectral type in preference to separate Zr and Ti abundances. To distinguish it from the earlier abandoned abundance class it was used with a slash character after the temperature class, so that the spectral class for R And became S5/4.5e.
The new abundance index is not calculated directly, but is assigned from the relative strengths of a number of spectral features. It is designed to closely indicate the sequence of C/O ratios from below 0.95 to about 1.1. Primarily the relative strength of ZrO and TiO bands forms a sequence from MS stars to abundance index 1 through 6. Abundance indices 7 to 10 are the SC stars and ZrO is weak or absent so the relative strength of the sodium D lines and Cs bands is used. Abundance index 0 is not used, and abundance index 10 is equivalent to a carbon star Cx,2 so it is also never seen.
+Abundance index criteria and estimated C/O ratio Abundance index Criteria C/O ratio MS Strongest YO and ZrO bands just visible 1 TiO ≫ ZrO and YO< 0.95 2 TiO > ZrO0.95: 3 ZrO = TiO, YO strong0.96 4 ZrO > TiO0.97 5 ZrO ≫ TiO0.97 6 ZrO strong, TiO = 00.98 7 (SC) ZrO weaker, D lines strong0.99 8 (SC) No ZrO or C2, D lines very strong1.00 9 (SC) C2 very weak, D lines very strong1.02 10 (SC) C2 weak, D lines strong1.1:
The derivation of the temperature class is also refined, to use line ratios in addition to the total ZrO and TiO strength. For MS stars and those with abundance index 1 or 2, the same TiO band strength criteria as for M stars can be applied. Ratios of different ZrO bands at 530.5 nm and 555.1 nm are useful with abundance indices 3 and 4, and the sudden appearance of LaO bands at cooler temperatures. The ratio of Ba and Sr lines is also useful at the same indices and for carbon-rich stars with abundance index 7 to 9. Where ZrO and TiO are weak or absent the ratio of the blended features at 645.6 nm and 645.0 nm can be used to assign the temperature class.
Asterisk notation With the different classification schemes and the difficulties of assigning a consistent class across the whole range of MS, S, and SC stars, other schemes are sometimes used. For example, one survey of new S/MS, carbon, and SC stars uses a two-dimensional scheme indicated by an asterisk, for example S5*3. The first digit is based on TiO strength to approximate the class M sequence, and the second is based solely on ZrO strength.
Standard stars This table shows the spectral types of a number of well-known S stars as they were classified at various times. Most of the stars are variable, usually of the Mira type. Where possible the table shows the type at maximum brightness, but several of the Ake types in particular are not at maximum brightness and so have a later type. ZrO and TiO band intensities are also shown if they are published (an x indicates that no bands were found). If the abundances are part of the formal spectral type then the abundance index is shown.
+Comparison of spectral types under different classification schemesStarKeenan(1954)Keenan et al.(1974)Ake(1979)Keenan-Boeshaar(1980)R Andromedae S6,6e: Zr4 Ti3 S4,6e S8e Zr6 4 S5/4.5e Zr5 Ti2X Andromedae S3,9e Zr3 Ti0 S2,9e: S5.5e Zr4 5 S5/4.5e Zr2.5 TixRR Andromedae S7,2e: Zr2 Ti6.5 S6,2e: S6.5e Zr3 Ti6 2 S6/3.5e Zr4+ Ti4W Aquilae S4,9: Zr4 Ti0 S3,9e: S6/6e Zr6 Ti0BD Camelopardalis S5,3 Zr2.5 Ti4 S3.5 Zr2.5 Ti3 2 S3.5/2 Zr2+ Ti3BH Crucis SC8,6: SC4.5/8-e Zr0 Tix Na10:Chi Cygni S7,1e: Zr0-2 Ti7 S7,2e S9.5 Zr3 Ti9 1 S6+/1e = Ms6+ Zr2 Ti6R Cygni S3.5,9e: Zr3.5 Ti0 S3,9e S8e Zr7 Ti3: 4 S5/6e Zr4 TixR Geminorum S3,9e: Zr3 Ti0 S3,9e S8e Zr5 5 S4/6e Zr3.5 Tix
Formation There are two distinct classes of S-type stars: intrinsic S stars; and extrinsic S stars. The presence of technetium is used to distinguish the two classes, only being found in the intrinsic S-type stars.
Intrinsic S stars