Abkhazia, officially the Republic of Abkhazia, is a partially recognised state in the South Caucasus, which is internationally recognised by most countries as part of Georgia. It sits on the eastern coast of the Black Sea in West Asia. It covers and has a population of around 245,000. Its capital and largest city is Sukhumi.
The region had autonomy as the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic at the time when the Soviet Union began to disintegrate in the late 1980s. Simmering ethnic tensions between the Abkhaz, the region's titular ethnicity, and Georgians, the largest single ethnic group at that time, culminated in the 1992–1993 War in Abkhazia, which resulted in Georgia's loss of control over most of Abkhazia followed by de facto Abkhazian independence and the ethnic cleansing of Georgians from Abkhazia.
The political status of Abkhazia is the central issue of the Abkhazia conflict and Georgia–Russia relations. Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by four UN member states (Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Syria), with three other states having previously recognised but withdrawn their recognition (Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Nauru). The remainder of the international community recognises Abkhazia as de jure part of Georgia. Lacking effective control over the Abkhazian territory, Georgia maintains an Abkhaz government-in-exile. Russia has a major military and economic presence in Abkhazia, providing financial assistance which constitutes about half of Abkhazia's budget, without which the Abkhaz separatist government would not be able to function. There has been discussion around possible Russian annexation of the region.
Despite a 1994 ceasefire agreement and years of negotiations, the dispute remains unresolved. The long-term presence of a United Nations Observer Mission and a Russian-led Commonwealth of Independent States peacekeeping force failed to prevent the flare-up of violence on several occasions. In August 2008, Abkhaz and Russian forces fought the Russo-Georgian War against Georgian forces, which led to the formal recognition of Abkhazia by Russia, the annulment of the 1994 ceasefire agreement and the termination of the UN mission. On 23 October 2008, the Parliament of Georgia declared Abkhazia a Russian-occupied territory.
Etymology The Russian name () is adapted from the Georgian ().
The Abkhaz name (, ) is etymologised as 'a land of the soul'; however, the literal meaning is 'a country of mortals'. It possibly first appeared in the seventh century in an Armenian text, perhaps referring to the ancient Apsilians.
In early Muslim sources, the term Abkhazia was generally used to mean the territory of Georgia.For all practical purposes the term Abkhdz or Afkhdz, in early Muslim sources covers Georgia and Georgians. Barthold, Wasil & Minorsky, Vladimir, "Abkhaz", in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 1, 1960.
Presumably considered as a successor of the Kingdom of Laziǩa ( in Georgian sources), this new polity continued to be referred to as Egrisi in some Byzantine era Georgian and Armenian chronicles (e.g. The Vitae of the Georgian Kings by Leonti Mroveli and History of Armenia by Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi).
The Constitution of Abkhazia says the names of the "Republic of Abkhazia" and "Apsny" are equivalent and interchangeable.
Before the 20th century, the region was sometimes referred to in English language sources as Abhasia.The British and Foreign Review: Or, European Quarterly. 1838, p. 422.;Edmund Ollier. Cassell's illustrated history of the Russo-Turkish. 1885
History
Early history Between the 9th and 6th centuries BC, the territory of modern Abkhazia was part of the ancient Kingdom of Colchis... Around the 6th century BC, the Greeks established trade colonies along the Black Sea coast of present-day Abkhazia, in particular at Pitiunt and Dioscurias..
Classical authors described various peoples living in the region and the great multitude of languages they spoke.Graham Smith, Edward A. Allworth, Vivien A. Law et al., pages 56–58; Abkhaz by W. Barthold V. Minorsky in the Encyclopaedia of Islam. Arrian, Pliny and Strabo have given accounts of the Abasgoi and MoschoiStrabo, in agreement with Stephan of Byzantium quoting Hellanicus peoples somewhere in modern Abkhazia on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. This region was subsequently absorbed in 63 BC into the Kingdom of Laziǩa...
According to an Eastern tradition, Simon the Zealot died in Abkhazia during a missionary trip and was buried in Nicopsis; his mortal remains were later transferred to Anacopia.
According to scholar Donald Rayfield, in the 2nd century AD, Kartvelian tribes populated the shores of Colchis up to Dioscurias (modern-day Sukhumi) and were subject to Roman rule, although they were hostile to the Romans. In Dioscurias, Sanigs (Sanigae, Kartvelian Svans) and Abazgs (Abkhaz) escaped Roman jurisdiction. Tribal boundaries fluctuated constantly. Abkhaz claim of supposedly being original settlers of Abkhazia is disputed by many historians. Some researchers believe they are an indigenous people (along with the Georgians), while others argue that they migrated from the North Caucasus during the Middle Ages. Regardless of their origins, scholars generally agree that they were closely connected to the Georgians politically, economically, and culturally.
Within the Roman and Byzantine Empires The Roman Empire conquered Lazica in the 1st century AD; however, the Roman presence was confined to port cities. According to Arrian, the Abasgoi and Apsilae peoples were nominal Roman subjects, and there was a small Roman outpost in Dioscurias. Abasgoi likely served in the Roman army in Ala Prima Abasgorum, which was stationed in Egypt. After the 4th century Lazica regained a measure of independence, but remained within the Byzantine Empire's sphere of influence. Anacopia was the principality's capital. The country was mostly Christian, with the archbishop's seat in Pityus.Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, ), p. 975 Stratophilus, the Metropolitan of Pityus, participated in the First Council of Nicaea in 325.
Around the middle of the 6th century AD, the Byzantines and the neighbouring Sassanid Persia fought for supremacy over Abkhazia, a conflict known as the Lazic War. During the war the Abasgians revolted against the Byzantine Empire and requested Sasanian assistance; the revolt was suppressed by General Bessas.
An Arab incursion into Abasgia, led by Marwan II, was repelled by Prince Leon I jointly with his Lazic and Iberian allies in 736. Leon I then married Mirian's daughter and a successor, King Leon II exploited this dynastic union to acquire Lazica in the 770s.
The successful defence against the Arab Caliphate, and new territorial gains in the east gave the Abasgian princes enough power to claim more autonomy from the Byzantine Empire. Circa 778, Prince Leon II, with the help of the Khazars, declared independence from the Byzantine Empire and transferred his residence to Kutaisi. During this period the Georgian language replaced Greek as the language of literacy and culture.Alexei Zverev, Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus; Graham Smith, Edward A Allworth, Vivien A Law et al., pages 56–58; Abkhaz by W. Barthold [V. Minorsky] in the Encyclopaedia of Islam; The Georgian-Abkhaz State (summary), by George Anchabadze, in: Paul Garb, Arda Inal-Ipa, Paata Zakareishvili, editors, Aspects of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: Cultural Continuity in the Context of Statebuilding, Volume 5, 26–28 August 2000.
Within the Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Abkhazia flourished between 850 and 950 AD, which ended by unification of Abkhazia and eastern Georgian states under a single Georgian monarchy ruled by King Bagrat III at the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century.
During the reign of Queen Tamar, Georgian chronicles mention Otagho as the Eristavi of Abkhazia. He was one of the first representatives of the House of Shervashidze (also known as Chachba) which went on to rule Abkhazia until the 19th century.
In the 1240s, Mongols divided Georgia into eight military-administrative sectors (tümens). The territory of contemporary Abkhazia formed part of the tümen administered by Tsotne Dadiani.
Ottoman Influence In the 16th century, after the break-up of the Georgian Kingdom into small kingdoms and principalities, the Principality of Abkhazia (nominally a vassal of the Kingdom of Imereti) emerged, ruled by the Shervashidze dynasty. In 1453, the Ottomans first attacked Sukhumi, and in the 1570s, they had a garrison there. Throughout the 17th century, they continued to launch attacks, leading to the imposition of tribute on Abkhazia.
Ottoman influence grew significantly in the 18th century with the construction of a fort in Sukhumi, accompanied by a conversion of the rulers of Abkhazia and many other Abkhaz to Islam. Nonetheless, conflicts between the Abkhaz and Turks persisted. The spread of Islam in Abkhazia was first evidenced by the Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi in 1641. Despite this, the Islamisation was more evident in the higher levels of society rather than the general population. In his work, Çelebi also wrote that the principal tribe of the Abkhazian principality, Chách, spoke the Mingrelian language, a subset of Kartvelian (Georgian) languages.
Abkhazia sought protection from the Russian Empire in 1801 but was declared "an autonomous principality" by the Russians in 1810. Russia then annexed Abkhazia in 1864, and Abkhaz resistance was quashed as the Russians deported Muslim Abkhaz to Ottoman territories.
Within Russian Empire
In the beginning of the 19th century, while the Russians and Ottomans were vying for control of the region, the rulers of Abkhazia shifted back and forth across the religious divide. The first attempt to enter into relations with Russia was made by Prince Kelesh-Bey in 1803, shortly after the incorporation of eastern Georgia into the expanding Tsarist empire in 1801. However, pro-Ottoman sympathy in Abkhazia prevailed for a short time after Kelesh-Bey was assassinated by his son, Aslan-Bey, in 1801.Mikaberidze, Alexander, "Historical Dictionary of Georgia", Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p.84 On 2 July 1810, Russian Marines stormed Sukhum-Kale and had Aslan-Bey replaced with his rival and brother, Sefer Ali-Bey, who had converted to Christianity and assumed the name of George. Abkhazia joined the Russian Empire as an autonomous principality, in 1810. However, Sefer-bey's rule was limited and many mountain regions were as independent as before. Sefer-bey ruled from 1810 to 1821. The next Russo-Turkish war (1828–1829) strongly enhanced the Russian positions, leading to a further split in the Abkhaz elite, mainly along religious divisions. During the Crimean War (1853–1856), Russian forces had to evacuate Abkhazia and Prince Hamud-Bey Sharvashidze-Chachba (Mikhail), who ruled from 1822 to 1864, seemingly switched to the Ottomans.
Later on, the Russian presence strengthened and the highlanders of Western Caucasia were finally subjugated by Russia in 1864. The autonomy of Abkhazia, which had functioned as a pro-Russian "buffer zone" in this troublesome region, was no longer needed by the Tsarist government and the rule of the Sharvashidze came to an end; in November 1864, Prince Mikhail (Hamud-Bey) was forced to renounce his rights and resettle in Voronezh, Russia. Later that same year, Abkhazia was incorporated into the Russian Empire as a special military province of Sukhum-Kale which was transformed, in 1883, into an okrug as part of the Kutaisi Governorate. Large numbers of Muslim Abkhazians, said to have constituted as much as 40% of the Abkhazian population, emigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1864 and 1878 together with other Muslim populations of the Caucasus, a process known as Muhajirism.