There is a long and established framework for water resources management in Colombia. The Environment Ministry and up to 33 Regional Authorities (the first one was created in 1954), are in charge of water resources management and policies at the national and regional and watershed level, respectively. Other sectoral ministries are in charge of water demand for energy, water supply and sanitation and water for irrigation.
Water resources availability per capita in Colombia was 45,408 cubic meters in 2007, way above the world's average of 8,209 in the same year and is particularly prone to flooding and landslides. Climate change is expected to highly affect highland Andean ecosystems, especially moorlands, due to increase in temperatures and aquifer-based freshwater supplies in insular and coastal areas due to sea level increases and saline intrusion.
Despite the developed legal and institutional framework for water resources management in Colombia, many challenges remain, including: (i) the consideration of water as an abundant resource affect the implementation of certain policies; (ii) fragmentation on water resources management responsibilities and lack of a consistent national strategy; (iii) some lack of coordination between the Environmental Ministry and the Regional Authorities; (iv) lack of capacities at the regional level; (v) governability challenges due to social and environmental issues such as deforestation, illegal crops, urban sprawl…etc.
Water management history and recent developments
During the 20th Century, Colombian Government focused on increasing knowledge on natural resources as well as developing law and institutions to regulate their uses. For example, in 1952, the Government created the Division for Natural Resources, under the Environment Ministry, aimed at managing land, forestry and fisheries. In 1953, the Government enacted the Decree 1371, also known as the Sanitation Code, which included general rules to control residual water.
In 1954, the Government, following the model based on the Tennessee Valley Authority, established in the US in 1933, created the Cauca Regional Authority with the objective of managing land and water resources in a multisectoral and integrated way. For the next 50 years, up to 33 Regional Authorities (Corporaciones Autonomas Regionales –CARs) will be created all over Colombia each of them representing the highest authority for natural resources management, including water resources, within their territory and being an integral part of the National Environmental System in Colombia.
In 1968, the government created the National Institute of Renewable Natural Resources and Environment (INDERENA), encompassing the Division for Natural Resources and the Magdalena and Sinu Regional Authorities. During the 1970s, there was an intense institutional development with the creation of numerous sectoral entities such as the Meteorological Service in charge of analyzing meteorological and hydrological data, the Geographic Institute Agustin Godazzi in charge of land management, INGEOMINAS in charge of groundwater resources management, and Colombian Agricultural Institute in charge of assessing the environmental impacts of fertilizers and pesticides, among others. In addition, Regional Authorities advanced environmental tasks related to water and forestry management. For example, the Regional Authority of Cali and Yumbo was the first regional authority with the equipment and regulation necessary to control industrial discharges on water bodies.
In addition, the government together with INDERENA and the Food and Agriculture Organization collaborated during the 1970s in the creating of the National Code for Renewable Natural Resources and Environmental Protection, also known as the Natural Resources Code, which was finally enacted with Decree 2811 of 1974.
During the 1980s, Natural Resources Code and the 1979 National Sanitation Law were developed through numerous regulations such as the Watershed Decree 2857 of 1981, Atmospheric Releases Decrees 02 of 1982 and 2200 of 1983, and the Water Quality Decree 1594 of 1984.
The new constitution of 1991 included 49 articles for environmental and natural resources protection and was considered for some experts as the “Environmental Constitution.” Finally, Law 99 of 1993 established the current institutional framework in Colombia, in particular it: (i) turned the INDERENA into the Ministry of Environment (ii) created the National Environmental System (iii) established the Regional Authorities as the institutions in charge of implementing national policies and regulations; (iv) finally, included five research institutions into the National Environmental System, namely: Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute José Benito Vives de Andréis Marine and Coastal Research Institute Amazonic Institute of Scientific Research John von Neumann Environmental Research Institute of the Pacific
Water resource base
Surface and groundwater resources
According to FAO, Colombia has an annual average rainfall of 3,000mm, with an annual volume of 3,425 cubic kilometers (km3). About 61% of which, or 2,113 km3, represent annual run off. According to IDEAM, 40% of water supply is needed to maintain ecosystems and preserve them from impacts threatening water availability.
There are five drainage basins in Colombia, which main characteristics are summarized below.
Key Characteristics of the Drainage Basins
Drainage Basin Drainage Surface km2 Main Rivers Average annual rainfall (mm) Average annual run off (mm) Caribbean 363,878 Magdalena, Cauca, Atrato, Sumapaz, Sogamoso, Saldana, Bogotá 300 to 2,500 487 Pacific Patía, San Juan, Mira, Bandó, Dagua, Anchicayá 2,000 to 9,000 221 Orinoquia 350,000 Meta, Guaviare, Arauca, Tomo, Vichada 1,000 to 5,500 662 Amazonia 343,000 Amazonas, Vaupés, Guanía, Paraná, Caquetá, Putumayo 2,550 to 3,500 694 Catatumbo 8,370 Sardinata, Zulia, Catumbo 1,000 to 2,500 14 Total 1,141,748 - 3,000 2078 Source: FAO
According to the Environment Ministry, groundwater resources have not been sufficiently documented in Colombia. There are studies reflecting potential groundwater resources in areas were groundwater is currently being used which represents only 15% of Colombia's territory.
Storage capacity and infrastructure According to FAO, Colombia has 90 small dams with a total storage capacity of 3.4 km3 and 26 large dams (with a storage capacity of more than 25hm3) with a total capacity of 9.1 km3. Colombia also has about 1,500 lakes with a storage capacity of 8 km3.
Water quality The gradual decrease in Colombia's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from agriculture, urban settlements and industries. According to Orlando and Arias, there is not a national water quality inventory but rather regional and sporadic studies. For instance the National Planning Division, in a study of 1989 and 1993, estimated that the level of organic material discharged in Colombian water resources is 9,000 BOD per day, of which 4,000 are discharged solely by the agricultural sector.
Water resources management by sector
Drinking water and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation in Colombia has been improved in many ways over the past decades. Between 1990 and 2004, access to sanitation increased from 82% to 86%, but access to water increased only slightly from 92% to 93%.In particular, coverage in rural areas lags behind. Furthermore, despite improvements, the quality of water and sanitation services remains inadequate. For example, only 72% of those receiving public services receive water of potable quality and in 2006 only 25% of the wastewater generated in the country underwent any kind of treatment.
The World Economic Forum determined that Colombia's relative international position in water supply has dropped from the 4th position to the 24th in 27 years until 2017. Analyses made by the same institution predicts water shortages by 2050. Eight municipalities, including the greatly populated Pasto and Santa Marta, are expected to suffer the most from these shortages. Also, one fifth of the glaciers in Colombia has been reduced due to climate change in a 6-year period. In 2014, 318 municipalities were threatened by water shortages.
Irrigation and drainage
In 1991, Colombia had 750,513 hectares (ha) of irrigation or 11.4% of the total agricultural area (6.6 million ha). Public investment accounts for 287,454 ha, or 38% of irrigated area, while private investment accounts for the remaining 62%. Most of the irrigated areas are located in the warm center, Magdalena and Cauca Valleys, and the northeast near Venezuela's border and along the Caribbean coast. Cauca and Tolimas Valleys have 40% of irrigated land.
Hydropower
The electricity sector in Colombia is dominated by large hydropower generation (81% of production) and thermal generation (19%). Despite the country's large potential in new renewable energy technologies (mainly wind, solar and biomass), this potential has been barely tapped. A 2001 law designed to promote alternative energies lacks certain key provisions to achieve this objective, such as feed-in tariffs, and has had little impact so far. Large hydropower and thermal plants dominate the current expansion plans. The construction of a transmission line with Panama, which will link Colombia with Central America, is underway.
An interesting characteristic of the Colombian electricity sector (as well as of its water sector) is a system of cross-subsidies from users living in areas considered as being relatively affluent, and from users consuming higher amounts of electricity, to those living in areas considered as being poor and to those who use less electricity.
The electricity sector has been unbundled into generation, transmission, distribution and commercialization since sector reforms carried out in 1994. About half the generation capacity is privately owned. Private participation in electricity distribution is much lower.
Legal and institutional framework
Legal framework
The water resources management legal framework consists of the following laws and regulations, presented in chronological order: Decree 2811 of 1974: Also known as the Natural Resources Code, establish on its Article 134 "it is responsibility of the State to guarantee water quality for human and other users." Law 09 of 1979: Also known as the National Sanitation Code, establish general norms and control procedures for water quality aimed at protecting human health. Article 10 establishes the basic framework for water discharge according to the rules and procedures enacted by the Health Ministry. Colombian Constitution of 1991: up to 43 articles define the mission of the national government regarding environmental issues and establish an action framework for environmental management, including water resources management. Law 99 of 1993: establishes the Environmental Ministry and organizes a new institutional framework, the National Environmental System. The Law 99 includes legal, institutional and financial considerations aimed at managing the environment in an effective and efficient way. Law 99 was intended to overhaul Colombia's previous environmental agencies and governance systems thoroughly, and thus lead to the creation of several new institutions and ministries dedicated to this cause. The institutions and ministries created included but were not limited to the Sistema Nacional Ambiental (SINA), the Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (MADs), the Instituto de Investigación Marinas y Costeras (INVEMAR), and the Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales (CARs).
Institutional framework