Mao Wenlong (; 10 February 1576 – 24 July 1629), courtesy name Zhennan, was a Chinese military general of the Ming dynasty, best known for commanding an independent detachment based in Dongjiang, a strategically important island in the Yellow Sea that defended the coastal corridor into the Ming tributary Joseon, where he engaged harassing naval and amphibious battles against the Manchu-led Later Jin (which later became the Qing dynasty). He was also known for excelling in artillery warfare and successfully incorporating Western-style tactics into the Chinese military.
Mao later fell victim to power struggles with the newly appointed governor Yuan Chonghuan, who had him summarily executed upon the latter's arrival to take over the command of Liaodong. His death effectively destroyed the morale of his old subordinates, many of whom mutinied and defected two years later, and led to the de facto collapse of the Dongjiang defensive line. This eventuated in the Qing invasion of Joseon at the end of 1636, allowing the Qing forces to eliminate further threat in the rear, and paved the way for Qing's successful invasion and conquest of China proper two decades later.
Early life Mao was born into a merchant family in Hangzhou and reported worked as a fortuneteller in his youth. When he was 29, he became an adopted son to a childless paternal uncle in Anshan so he travelled north for Liaodong.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷4天启五年九月初四日具奏：“臣草野微贱，元年有亲伯毛得春，系海州卫试百户也，无嗣承袭。” Along the way he visited a maternal uncle in the capital Beijing, who recommended him to Li Chengliang. He joined the Ming military and participated in a military selection exam in late 1605, in which he ranked sixth among the recruits.《明季北略》卷2《毛文龙入皮岛》：“九月，兵巡道白某考武举，文龙列名第六。” For his military talents in terrain analysis,《毛总戎墓志铭》：“尝密走关宁，觇其山川形势，捬髀咨嗟。” Mao was promoted to the rank of an officer, and became the commander of Aiyang in 1608.
Mao did not gain any further promotion for over a decade, prompting him to even consider discharge from military service.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷4天启五年九月初四日具奏：“因自叹曰：‘愿乘长风破万里浪，此志竟负却矣！盍者归以承寡母菽水欢。’正欲南旋。” However, in 1619 a new governor named Xiong Tingbi (熊廷弼) was appointed, who ordered Mao to conduct scorched earth operations in border areas in response to increasing Jurchen incursions,《熊襄愍公集》卷3《申明还兵情由疏》：“密遣守备毛文龙等安置诸毒，以待其来。” allowing him to gain a long-waited promotion the following year.《毛大将军海上情形》：“熊公甫拔之都阃。” After Xiong was impeached and removed in political struggles, the new governor Yuan Yingtai (袁應泰) reassigned Mao to manage logistics at the Shanhai Pass, where he gained another promotion for works involving gunpowder production.《表忠录·毛将军文龙传》：“经略袁应泰命文龙造火药山海关。”
Career against Jurchens In 1621, Later Jin forces invaded Liaodong and defeated the Ming garrisons in the Battle of Shen-Liao, capturing the strategic cities of Shenyang and Liaoyang. Over 100 of Mao's relatives in Anshan was massacred by the Jurchens,《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷5天启六年二月初六日塘报：“遂将毛总兵有原驻鞍山堡内毛文仪等一百余名口，一门老幼，绑献奴酋诛戮，抄屠一方甚惨。” prompting him to sign up to a recruitment call by the Liaodong governor Wang Huazhen (王化貞) to organize a volunteer detachment operating in territories at the Jurchen's rear.
Later in July, Mao led 197 men into Later Jin territories and attacked the Changshan Islands and various other islands along a 2,000-li stretch of coast line, capturing several enemy officers.《皇明通纪集要》卷45。 His detachment arrived at Zhenjiang (modern day Dandong) on July 14, and attacked the city at night, capturing several Manchu nobles, ambushing and killing the Jurchen commanders who was returning from raids on the surrounding towns. The success of this Battle of Fort Zhenjiang led to numerous other fortresses surrendering to Mao,《明史纪事本末补遗》卷4《毛帅东江》：“文龙率乌合之众二百人，涉海三千里，镇江既复，宽、叆一带城堡相继降，数百里之内，望风归附。”《满文老档》太祖第24册天命六年七月：“汤站堡人执汤站堡守堡以献，险山堡人亦执险山堡以献，毛文龙执永奠守堡以去，长奠守堡自愿往投。”《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷1。 but his forces were still forced to retreat after no Ming reinforcements were send to bolster up defenses against Jurchen counterattacks.《满文老档》太祖第24册天命六年七月：“命四贝勒、都堂栋鄂额驸率兵三千，往剿镇江一带之叛民，并谕曰：‘其首恶者杀之，余众编户携归。’谕毕遣之。是夜思之，惟恐有不妥，二十七日，又遣阿敏贝勒、达尔汉侍卫率兵二千往援。”《枫窗脞语·朝鲜颂毛碑文》：“奴酋惮之，阴使人抵义州府郑遵，谋杀公。遵密告于废王，王许之。”
After forcing to give up Zhenjiang, Mao started to based his operations on Pi Island (the modern day Ka Island) and Tieshan to recruit refugees into his troops. In June 1622, Mao was appointed the General Commander of the Liao Region (平遼將軍總兵官) by the Ming court,《大明熹宗实录》卷23天启二年六月。 and in February the next year was promoted to Governor and Marshal with a sword of state granted by Tianqi Emperor as proof of authority.《大明熹宗实录》卷31天启三年二月。 Under Mao's management, Dongjiang became an sizable settlement hosting hundreds of thousands of refugees who were displaced by the Jurchen invasion.《燃藜室记述》卷21《废主光海君故事本末》：“明朝升毛文龙为总兵、都督，赐尚方剑、玺书，仍开府于椵岛，号东江镇。辽民来投者日众，前后数十万口。” Mao would then launch repeated raids into Jurchen-controlled Liaodong, at the same time trading with the Koreans and the Europeans, making Dongjiang a strategic threat to the Later Jin's flank.《三朝辽事实录》卷10。
In the summer of 1623, after receiving reports that Nurhaci was planning on attacking the Ming dynasty,《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷2天启三年七月二十二日塘报：“据投来顺民李连功等供称：老憨暗传四王子与八王子，李佟二附马，准于七月初六、十九二日，直要叩关。” Mao sent four divisions to attack the Later Jin from four different fronts,《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷2天启三年七月二十二日塘报：“职随于六月十八日，率领参谋生员葛应贞、旗鼓都司时可达、游击尤景和、沈世魁等马步家丁八千余员名，于二十八日亲至镇江、汤站、凤-{}-凰-{}-城等处安营下寨，以图进剿。其千家庄进兵，则令游击朱家龙、任大镇、杨模等；其凤-{}-凰-{}-城进兵，则令游击王辅、王承鸾、郑继魁等；其昌城进兵，则令游击曲承恩等；其满浦进兵，则令参将易承惠、都司林茂春等。” which forced the Jurchens to abandon their campaign. Mao's divisions also managed gain a foothold on the southern Liaodong Peninsula, recruiting over 4,000 militiamen from the refugees《三朝辽事实录》卷13。 and successfully recapturing the towns of Jīnzhou and Lüshun and large quantities of Later Jin weaponries.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷2天启三年八月初二日塘报：“既得扼要，则西南之双岛，正南之旅顺口，东之三犋牛，皆为我有。自城南之一百二十里，俱可屯聚兵粮，招抚屯种。” In September, Mao received reports that Nurhaci was planning to attack the defensive line around Shanhai Pass,《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷2天启三年十月初□日塘报：“据哨探千总马成功禀称：探听奴酋兵马不多，只说九月中准要往西寇关。” so he led 30,000 men to raid the old Later Jin capital Hetu Ala, annihilating all the Jurchen defenders and forcing Nurhaci to turn back east with 40,000 troops.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷2天启三年十月初□日塘报：“及得斩获，细鞫生擒，供吐奴贼于十五日，在辽阳新城，正欲往西，闻梆声传至，即统达贼四万余，前来老寨救应。” before withdrawing. In October, Mao's forces again utilized the civilians' hatred towards the Jurchen invaders and recaptured the towns of Fuzhou and Yongning.《三朝辽事实录》卷13：“守金州都司张盘，探得复州奴贼摽掠恣淫，于三年十月初五日夜半领兵袭之，奴众奔窜，永宁等堡俱下。”
In the beginning of 1624, the Jurchens traversed across sea ice and attacked Lüshun with over 10,000 troops. Mao's troops managed to withstand the siege and defeated the attacks using an ambush.《明史纪事本末补遗》卷4《毛帅东江》：“建州兵又率万骑来攻旅顺，奇兵奋起，建骑不能下，遣使招降盘，即斩以殉，于是围益急。盘设伏南北两山夹攻，建州兵大败而去。” Nurhaci then sent an emissary to discuss peace deal,《三朝辽事实录》卷13：“七月初二，忽有奴酋咨文移龙求和，又接李永芳手札，将龙在辽族属未遭屠戮者尽行优待，诱龙同叛，中分土地。” but Mao arrested the messenger and handed him to the Ming court.《三朝辽事实录》卷13：“连奴酋来使暨李永芳恶札星夜差官缄封护送进呈。”
In January 1625, Wu Zhiwang (武之望), the Governor of the Deng-Lai, appealed to have a canal built between Jīnzhou and Lüshun, and pressured the local garrisons to start the construction project without considering the military situation.《三朝辽事实录》卷14：“登抚前议城南至旅顺口一百三十里，三面距海，唯北面狭束东西，相距仅十里许，挑断此地，引海水以图自固……已经覆议允行。” The news got leaked to the Later Jin, who attacked and captured the two towns, killing Mao's commanders Zhang Pan (張盤) and Zhu Guochang (朱國昌) who were in charge of the canal construction. Mao responded by sending troops to cut off the Later Jin supply line,《皇明通纪集要》卷56：“已而游击林茂春等邀击其归路，擒斩有差。” causing the enemy to retreat and recapturing the lost towns.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷4天启五年二月二十三日塘报：“金州南关铺游击张盘失守间，职于初七日业差都司石成玉飞驾多船，前往金、旅收拾残兵，仍着据险。” However, Governor Wu took the opportunity to send in his own men into Lüshun and claimed the achievements for himself, but withdrew from the garrison in winter in fear of another Jurchen attack and suggested to the Ming court to abandon defense altogether.《三朝辽事实录》卷15。 Mao argued for regarrison《东江疏揭塘报节钞》卷4天启五年八月二十二日具奏：“臣又有说焉，阅邸报有张攀撤回皇城岛守冬之疏，无容再啄，不知旅顺为登莱门户，为鲜江饷道咽喉，一旦撤而之他，当冰冻之日，倘奴贼乘坚而来，绝我咽喉，守而弗去，则三千余员名之官兵，置之何地？一百三十里之膏腴，属之何人？将东江数十万之生灵，津、登往来之船只，不从此梗绝乎？臣虑及此，业遣参将李-{鑛}-防守其地，更授方略，以为御冬之机。” and gained the support of the Minister of Defense Wang Zaijin (王在晉) and other officials, who praised Mao's garrisons in Dongjiang as an "offshore Great Wall (海外長城)《大明熹宗实录》卷42天启三年十二月：“今日所恃海外长城者，非毛文龙者乎？”". Tianqi Emperor himself also praised Mao for his work "making the barbarians troubled and unable to head west《大明熹宗实录》卷55天启五年正月：“使奴狼顾而不敢西向，惟尔是赖！”". Nurhaci sent messengers in attempt to convince Mao to defect, but Mao steadfastly refused.《满文老档》太祖第64册天命十年正月至三月：“二月初一日，遣刘维国、金盛晋遗书毛文龙。书曰：‘尔所遣之奸细，哨探等人均已被获……尔若如此与我相倚，迫使朝鲜投降，则尔之前途无量矣。尔既得罪与尔帝，已不能回明，而朝鲜又不容尔，我能置尔于不顾乎？尔向何处？倘若尔因派遣奸细，收纳逃人而恐我责备于尔，各为其主效力，岂有复存恶念之理乎？尔若降我，岂不亦如此效力与我乎？古之韩信弃楚霸王而归汉，胡敬德弃刘武周而降唐，因其降而成大功，留美名与后世，有何人谓其不忠于君而归叛他主？’”
In January 1626, Nurhaci attacked Ningyuan (modern day Xingcheng), and Mao sent troops to attack Haizhou and Shenyang (which was Later Jin's capital), preventing the Jurchens' from fully committed to their invasion westwards.《东江塘报疏揭节抄》卷5天启六年正月二十日塘报眉批：“东兵之进而捣沈阳以覆其巢，攻海州以遏其归者，已先奴一日而发，亦綦神速矣。”《皇明续纪三朝法传全录》卷15。 In June, Nurhaci again sent messengers trying to turn Mao to his side, but Mao reported the letter to the Ming court《枣林杂俎》和集《丛赘·毛文龙》：“天启丙寅六月，金人遗毛文龙书曰：‘古国家兴亡，皆天运循环。其将亡也，必灾异屡降，各处兵起。其将兴也，必天默护佑，动而成功。南朝运终，死数未尽，天使丧亡，将军岂能救之乎？良禽择木而栖，贤臣择主而事。韩信、陈平弃楚而归汉，刘整、吕文焕弃宋而归元，此皆默识天时，择主而事，名垂后世。自古天生帝王，不念仇隙，只论功德。管仲，桓公之仇也，不杀用相之，遂成霸业。敬德，太宗之仇也，不杀而将之，以有天下。今将军纵竭力办事，君臣皆迷，反受祸患。南朝气运已尽，时势已尽，悔之不及。’” and in August organized an assassination attempt when received reports from Geng Zhongming (who was serving as a spy in Shenyang) that Nurhaci was visiting a hot spring, but the latter escaped the attempt.《东江疏揭塘报节抄》卷5天启六年九月初二日具奏：“随于本月初四日，差千总石景选、毛永科带兵一百五十名，前往细探。老奴背果患疮，带兵下营狗儿岭汤泉洗疮。石景选、毛永科兵少粮微，不忍失此机会，即于对岭高山顶上，初十黑夜，枪炮喊呐，以寒奴胆。奴贼惊恐，次早上船顺水西去。此石景选、毛永科差回确报也。”
Execution After Nurhaci died in late August 1626, his eighth son Hong Taiji inherited the throne. Hong Taiji changed his father's way of ruling to a more ethnically tolerant policy and started recruiting Han Chinese into the ranks of Later Jin, which helped solidifying the Jurchens' control of Lower Manchuria and thus reduced the success rate of Mao's raids. Meanwhile, Tianqi Emperor died in late September 1627 and was succeeded by his overambitious half-brother Chongzhen Emperor, whose impatience led him to have unrealistic expectations. In early 1628, after purging Wei Zhongxian and restoring the Donglin control within the Ming court, Chongzhen appointed Yuan Chonghuan (who was previously removed by Wei's party) as the new Minister of Defense.《明实录·崇祯实录》（卷一）：“罢蓟辽督师王之臣。命袁崇焕为兵部尚书，兼右副都御史，督师蓟辽、登莱、天津，移驻关门。” In July, Yuan boasted to Chongzhen that he could "recover the Liao region in five years",《明实录·崇祯实录》（卷一）：“癸酉，召廷臣及督师尚书袁崇焕于平台。上慰劳甚，至问边关何日可定？崇焕应曰：‘臣期五年为陛下肃清边陲’。慷慨请兵械转饷。且曰：‘边臣效命，动忧掣肘；吏部用人，兵部指挥，户部措饷，言路持论，皆与边臣尽相呼，应始可成功’。上曰：‘然’。” which pleased Chongzhen enough to grant him a sword of state as a proof of supreme authority.《明季北略》（卷4）：“崇焕应曰臣请五年为陛下肃清边陲。上曰：五年灭敌，朕不吝封侯之赏。时四辅臣钱龙锡等侍立。俱奏曰：崇焕肝胆、意气、识见、方略，种种可嘉，真奇男子也。上悦。赐茶果瓜饼而退，焕出，朝臣问五年之期，当有定算否？焕曰：上期望甚迫，故以五年慰圣心。识者曰：主上英明，后且按期责效，崇焕不旋踵矣。时期议忧毛文龙难驭，大学士钱龙锡，过崇焕语及之，遂定计出，癸未赐崇焕尚方剑。”《明史》（卷259）：“帝悉從之，賜崇煥酒饌而出。崇煥以前此熊廷弼、孫承宗皆為人排構，不得竟其志，上言：‘恢復之計，不外臣昔年以遼人守遼土，以遼土養遼人，守為正著，戰為奇著，和為旁著之說。法在漸不在驟，在實不在虛，此臣與諸邊臣所能為。至用人之人，與為人用之人，皆至尊司其鑰。何以任而勿貳，信而勿疑？蓋馭邊臣與廷臣異，軍中可驚可疑者殊多，但當論成敗之大局，不必摘一言一行之微瑕。事任既重，為怨實多，諸有利於封疆者，皆不利於此身者也。況圖敵之急，敵亦從而間之，是以為邊臣甚難。陛下愛臣知臣，臣何必過疑懼，但中有所危，不敢不告’。”