Bolivia has traditionally undertaken different water resources management approaches aimed at alleviating political and institutional instability in the water sector. The so-called water wars of 2000 and 2006 in Cochabamba and El Alto, respectively, added social unrest and conflict into the difficulties of managing water resources in Bolivia. Evo Morales’ administration is currently developing an institutional and legal framework aimed at increasing participation, especially for rural and indigenous communities, and separating the sector from previous privatization policies. In 2009, the new Environment and Water Resources Ministry was created absorbing the responsibilities previously under the Water Ministry. The Bolivian Government is in the process of creating a new Water Law – the current Water Law was created in 1906 – and increasing much needed investment on hydraulic infrastructure.
Water management history and recent developments The 1906 Water Law (Ley general de aguas) marks the beginning of Bolivia's 20th Century water resources policy. The Water Law includes provisions such as water as a public good and establish Bolivian government as main authority responsible for water management. The definition of water rights is vague, “the water passing through the land belongs to the land owner as long as it does not affect others.” No provision is included for neither groundwater property rights nor water tariffs. The Water Law was minimally modified on 1945, to specify that “no water right includes the right to deny access to water to downstream water users.” In 1988, the Senate prepared a draft to modify the Water Law to include provisions such as groundwater as public domain, and to establish a water fee for farmers based on the area benefited with improved irrigation infrastructure. Similar attempts occurred in 1995 and 1999, when the government together with the World Bank and GTZ drafted a Water Law including some fundamental principles included in the 1988 version plus provisions on institutional framework and concessions of water rights. None of the three drafts turned into a new Water Law.
Despite these efforts to concentrate water resources management into a single legal document, the different sectors involved in water use continue to act separately in accordance with several laws such as the Electricity Act, the Hydrocarbon Act, the Mining Code and the Environmental act. The lack of a clear legal and institutional framework has made difficult to ensure appropriate quality and quantity of water for the different water users in the medium and long term.
Water resources base
Surface and groundwater resources
Bolivia can be divided into three areas, which correspond to the eastern area (a tropical and subtropical region), the western area (the arid, semi arid and sub-humid dry region), and the Titicaca basin. The hydrographic system consists of three large basins: the Amazon Basin which measures approximately 724,000 km2 and covers 66% of Bolivia's territory; the closed (endorheic) basin, which measures 145,081 km2 or 13% of the territory; and the Rio Plata Basin, which covers 229,500 km2 or 21% of the nation's territory.
The Amazon basin has a high flow of water and it is prone to floods. The Parana basin represents approximately 42% of the total area of Bolivia and it is prone to droughts and desertification. The quantity and quality of hydrological information is very poor.
River Basins in Bolivia
Basin Name Main Rivers Surface Area (1000 km2) Average Flow (km3/year) Amazon Basin Madre de Dios, Orthon, Abuna, Beni, Grande, Mamoré e Itenez 887 572 Plata Pilcomayo, Bermejo, San Juan y Paraguay 234 47.5 Altiplano Desaguadero, Lake Titicaca, Poopó, Salares de Uyuni y Coipasa 191 14.7 Source: FAO
Storage capacity According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, Bolivia has five dams aimed mostly at hydropower generation.
Environmental aspects
Water quality
The gradual decrease in Bolivia's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from industries and cities. For example, in the Andean region, rivers transport high values of organic material, up to 100 mg/L. This water is used for irrigated agriculture downstream.
In the Amazon region, erosion and land use upstream, especially mining, deteriorate water quality due to high concentration of sediments. Forestry and agriculture also affect water quality in Bolivia. For example, sugarcane production is considered one of the main causes in the decreasing on fisheries in the Rio Pirai (Santa Cruz)
Water related risks Natural disasters directly affect Bolivia's development; because they cause capital losses, and damage hydraulic and other type of infrastructures. Such losses, in turn, influence economic indicators such as inflation and production, which in turn increase poverty. Floods and landslides in the rainy season affect a wide range of hydraulic infrastructure. Since year 2000, a notable increase in climate-related disaster situations have been observed in Bolivia, some of them associated with El Niño/La Niña events. In 2002, the Potosi Province experienced an unprecedented heavy snow storm, which affected about 3,000 inhabitants and killed 20,000 animals; and the La Paz Province was struck by a destructive hail, causing the death of 70 persons and US$70 million in losses. In 2004, a prolonged drought affected the Chaco Region, which consists of the Departments of Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija, threatened the food security, health and nutritional status of approximately 180,000 people, of which 15 percent were children. El Niño 2006/2007 event caused economic losses estimated at US$0.44 billion or 4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and affected about 133,100 families or 0.56 million people, equivalent to five times the population affected by El Niño 1997/1998. About 54 percent of the losses occurred in the rural areas. La Niña 2007/2008 event caused damage and losses evaluated at US$0.52 billion, 20 percent higher than the previous event and affected about 123,600 families. The agricultural sector absorbed about 53 percent of these losses and damage.
Potential climate change impacts
According to a study about Climate Change in Bolivia published in 2007 by the Bolivian Government, the anticipated effects of Climate Change on water resources are: Extreme events: Hydrometeorological extreme events are frequent in Bolivia and will tend to rise in magnitude and intensity by the effect of climate change. The IPCC (2001) foresees greater frequency and intensity of extreme events due to climate change. In recent years, the occurrence of tropical storms has increased in Bolivia, with winds higher than 28 m/s according to the Beaufort scale, causing major damage. It has also been observed presence of convective movements with violent hail storms as those registered in the city of La Paz in February 2002 and 2003. Droughts: Climate change could exacerbate water shortages in the arid and semi-arid valleys and reduce water availability in the highlands. Many productive and urban areas are located in the arid or semi-arid region with rudimentary water systems supplied by wells or rivers. These supply systems are vulnerable to water availability, since they lack reservations that would make water available during the dry season. Floods: Climate change could increase intense rainfall causing floods that could lead to significant infrastructural damage. According to regional scenarios, it is expected a reduction of periods of rain with an increased probability of heavy rainfall in a short time. In this sense the country still lacks systems to study rainfall patterns as well as early warning systems which increase the vulnerability of the populations especially those in unplanned settlements. In addition, many basins in Bolivia do count with integrated water resources management system in place with activities aimed at watershed protection. This translates into degradation of soils, declining aquifer recharge, reduced availability of water, which overall reduces economic productivity and income of its inhabitants. Glacier Retreat: Documented glaciers retreat, due to increase of temperatures, may increase seasonal runoff in the short term and increase dependency on seasonal rainfall for water supply in the medium and long term. According to Francou, Bolivia's Chacaltaya glacier, situated 20 km NE of the city of La Paz, has lost 82% of its surface area since 1982 and may completely melt by 2013. (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary)
Anticipated impacts of Climate Change by Region
Region Change scenario Anticipated impacts Altiplano Increased precipitation, increased frequency of storms with fewer days of rain, increased frequency of hail, lower river flow Increasing appearance of frost, increasing need of water for irrigation due to longer dry season, problems with hydropower generation, glacier retreat, crop failure, flooding in the rainy season, lower availability of water for human and animal consumption, lower aquifer recharge, increased competition for water use Andean Valleys Increased precipitation, increased frequency of storms with fewer days of rain, increased frequency of hail Increased competition for water use, biodiversity loss, increasing need of water for irrigation due to longer dry season, increased risk of mudslides, problems with power generation, soil erosion and desertification Chaco Longer dry season during the growing season, intense and recurrent droughts, low river flow Increased competition for water use, biodiversity loss, increased events of heat waves during the summer, soil erosion and desertification, increased pollution of water sources Amazon An increase in the amount of rainfall by event, increased cloudiness rate, high atmospheric humidity in summer and severe droughts and winter Frequent flooding, infrastructure damage and loss, winter crop failure and livestock loss due to lack of water, increased presence of pests and diseases due to high humidity, biodiversity loss, outbreaks of infectious diseases related to water. Source: National Program for Climate Change
Water resources management by sector
Drinking water and sanitation
Bolivia’s water and sanitation coverage has greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable increase in sectoral investment. However, the country continues to suffer from what happens to be the continent’s lowest coverage levels as well as from low quality of services. The lowest levels of coverage are found in the departments of Pando, Potosí, and Oruro. Increasing coverage requires a substantial increase of investment financing, which has dropped back since 2000.Source: Vice Ministry of Public Investment and External Financing
The next table reflects access to water supply and sanitation services in 2006. Urban (64% ofthe population) Rural (36% ofthe population) TotalWater Broad definition 95% 68% 85% House connections 90% 44% 73%Sanitation Broad definition 60% 22% 46%Sewerage 39% 2% 26% Source: Joint Monitoring Program WHO/UNICEF(JMP /2006). Data for water and sanitation based on the Housing Survey (2002), Bolivia Democratic and Health Survey (2003), and Survey of Multiple Indicators by Conglomerates (Encuesta de Multiples Indicadores por Conglomerados, 2000).
Irrigation and drainage