Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design is a 2006 book by Michael Shermer, an author, publisher, and historian of science. Shermer examines the theory of evolution and the arguments presented against it. He demonstrates that the theory is very robust and is based on a convergence of evidence from a number of different branches of science. The attacks against it are, for the most part, very simplistic and easily demolished. He discusses how evolution and other branches of science can coexist with religious beliefs. He describes how he and Darwin both started out as creationists and how their thinking changed over time. He examines current attitudes towards evolution and science in general. He finds that in many cases the problem people have is not with the facts about evolution but with their ideas of what it implies.
Contents and synopsis Note that the information in the book, summarized below, was correct when the book was originally published in 2006. Many of the people and topics mentioned or discussed in the book have Wikipedia pages which can be accessed by clicking on them, when highlighted, in the synopsis below. Unless specifically stated otherwise, all material including quoted text in this section is taken from the book, i.e. the book is the sole reference for this material.
Prologue: Why Evolution Matters In June 2004, science historian Frank Sulloway and the author (Michael Shermer) spent a month retracing Charles Darwin's footsteps in the Galápagos Islands. Shermer, who was in very good physical condition, found this a very challenging excursion due to a lack of water and a harsh environment. He was struck by how clear the evidence was against creationism. Contrary to an iconic myth, Darwin actually departed the Galápagos in 1835 still a creationist. Shermer attributes this myth to the mistaken idea "that science proceeds by select eureka discoveries." In a journal entry 9 months later, Darwin refers to the different mockingbirds he collected on the Galápagos Islands as "varieties" rather than an evolution of separate species. Sulloway, who made a study of Darwin's journals, concluded that Darwin's acceptance of evolution came after meeting in March 1837 with ornithologist John Gould who studied Darwin's bird specimens. When faced with conclusive evidence that transmutation from one species to another had occurred, he was forced to abandon the universally accepted notion that species were fixed and immutable. In 1844 he was confident enough to write about his findings to a friend, and compared his revelations to "confessing to a murder." He did not publish for 20 years. Acceptance was slow in the scientific community and even slower in the general public. A 2005 poll showed that 42% of Americans hold creationist views compared to 48% who believe in evolution. 64% were open to the idea of teaching both in public schools. Creationism is much less prevalent outside of the USA. The author acknowledges that he also once believed in creationism. He adopted that view in 1971 when he became a born-again Christian in high school, and argued the creationist case through graduate school in 1977. He mastered in statistics while studying psychology and understood its importance in determining if a hypothesis was true or false. He took a course in evolution to see the other side of the debate, and quickly realized that creationist literature "presented a Darwinian cardboard cutout that a child could knock down." He discovered evidence from many different scientific disciplines, all of which converged on the same conclusion: evolution happened. As observed by geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution."
1. The Facts of Evolution Ever since Darwin's book On the Origin of Species came out in 1859, it has been under attack. Some suggested that he should have just put forward his data and not drawn any conclusions from them. Darwin points out that "all observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any service." It has also become a fight between religion and science, since evolution is not compatible with the idea that God simply created all of the species.
Prior to developing his theory of evolution, Darwin published a monograph entitled "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs" which showed that what appeared to be different types of coral reefs were actually different stages in coral reef development. Unlike evolution, he came up with the hypothesis first and found the data to verify it later. He did this work on the same voyage of HMS Beagle that took him to the Galápagos.
Unlike some of his contemporaries, Darwin insisted that theory comes to and from the facts, not from political or philosophical beliefs. Thomas Henry Huxley was one of the strongest and most vocal supporters of Darwin and this idea, and he became known as "Darwin's Bulldog". One of the main opposing arguments came from William Paley's 1802 book Natural Theology. It includes the well-known watchmaker argument, which says that since the complexity of a watch clearly requires a human designer, life, being much more complex than a watch, must require God as a designer. Shermer refers to this as a "top down" explanation and evolution as a "bottom up" explanation.
Ernst Mayr outlines 5 general tenets of evolutionary theory that have been discovered in the years since Darwin: Evolution - organisms change through time Descent with modification - offspring differ slightly from their parents Gradualism - significant change occurs through a series of small changes Multiplication - evolution produces an increasing number of new species Natural selection - useful changes are selected and survive
Mayr also gives 5 rules under which natural selection operates: Populations initially increase in a geometric progression The natural environment limits the ultimate population size This results in a struggle for existence There is variation in every species Therefore variations which are more suitable to the environment allow more offspring of that type to be produced, a process known as "differential reproductive success."
Creationist arguments against evolution tend to be simplistic. In one example, evolution is likened to "a warehouse full of parts randomly assorting themselves into a jumbo jet." They focus on the random nature of variations and fail to acknowledge the selection process which is not random.
Darwin was concerned by a lack of transitional fossils between various species. Ernst Mayr provided an explanation known as allopatric speciation which is related to the most common way that a new species can emerge. When a small group of one species breaks away and becomes geographically isolated it can experience rapid genetic changes that happen too quickly to produce a significant fossil record. The larger original group is relatively stable with little genetic change during this time because of diverse interbreeding. If the small break-away group later grows to become a large group, it will also become relatively stable, now as a new species that is similar to, but distinct from, the original one. Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould apply this to the fossil record and suggest that changes occur in this approximately discontinuous manner, which they call "punctuated equilibrium."
William Whewell, a nineteenth century philosopher, suggested that to prove a theory one needs a "convergence of evidence" from different paths. In the case of evolution, there is abundant and consistent evidence from geology, paleontology, botany, zoology, herpetology, entomology, biogeography, comparative anatomy, genetics, and population genetics.
Creationists like to claim that evolution is not a science because there was no one there to observe it. There is, nevertheless, abundant evidence to prove that evolution is a valid theory and not just a hypothesis. Other branches of science such as geology and cosmology also lack the ability to directly observe past events. The evolution from wolf to dog is a good example because an examination of mitochondrial DNA from the remains of early dogs strongly indicate a connection between ancient American and Eurasian domestic dogs and Old World gray wolves. An excellent compilation of evolutionary convergence is Richard Dawkins' book The Ancestor's Tale. In addition to the convergence of evidence from different branches of science, a comparative method is used to examine how characteristics evolve together across species when adapting to changing environmental or other conditions. Modern organisms show a variety of structures from simple to complex, reflecting an evolutionary history rather than an instantaneous creation. The eye is given as an example of this variety of complexities in different organisms. The human eye is built upside down and backwards, so that light has to travel through blood vessels and various cells before reaching the light receptors. This seems inconsistent with "intelligent" design.
Humans have numerous useless vestigial structures including: male nipples, male uterus remnant, thirteenth rib (in some humans), coccyx (tail bone), wisdom teeth, appendix, body hair, goose bumps, extrinsic ear muscles, and third eyelid remnant. Again, this seems consistent with evolution and not with intelligent design.
The hypothetico-deductive method is often used in analyzing fossils being excavated, in which a hypothesis is formed about existing data and this is used to make deductions which can be tested by acquiring additional data which can confirm or negate the hypothesis. Shermer gives an example where the method was used by Jack Horner (paleontologist) to explain the mystery of what had happened to a large herd of Maiasaurs whose fossil remains all shared some unusual characteristics: the bones were aligned, separated by size, and fractured lengthwise. His explanation involved a two-stage process involving ash from a volcanic eruption which killed them followed later by a flood.
2. Why People Do Not Accept Evolution In 1925 William Jennings Bryan prepared a speech to make at the famous "Scopes Monkey Trial" related to the teaching of evolution. The speech basically said that evolution eliminates God, leading to a breakdown of morality and the loss of meaning for humanity. Shermer proposes that this is the main reason for the rejection by many people of evolution and their refusal to consider any evidence in its favor. But, as Shermer points out, "Accepting evolution does not force us to jettison our morals and ethics, and rejecting evolution does not ensure their constancy." He gives 5 reasons why people resist accepting evolution as a fact: They think that science is something you choose to believe in based on faith, and since they find it in conflict with their religious beliefs, they choose not to believe it. They believe that evolution is a threat to specific religious beliefs, and that science can be used to prove that evolution is false. They fear that evolution degrades our humanity. They equate evolution with nihilism, implying that life is without meaning. They fear that evolution implies that we have a fixed human nature.
3. In Search of the Designer Shermer and Sulloway asked many people why they believe in God and why they think other people believe. They found that being female with religious parents in a large family makes one more religious while being male, educated and in conflict with one's parents makes one less religious. Five common reasons for believing in order of preference: Natural beauty and complexity Experiencing God in everyday life It's comforting The Bible Faith
Six common reasons why people think others believe in order of preference: It's comforting Religious upbringing Experiencing God in everyday life Faith Fear Natural beauty and complexity