The Études (CD 143) are the final collection for piano by Claude Debussy, comprising twelve pieces composed between 5 August and 29 September 1915. Divided into two books and dedicated to the memory of Frédéric Chopin, they were premiered partially by pianists George Copeland on 21 November 1916 in New York City; Walter Rummel on 14 December 1916, at a concert for the benefit of "L'Aide affectueuse aux musiciens" in Paris; and Marguerite Long on 10 November 1917 at the Société nationale de musique.
Composed during the turmoil of World War I, this work is characteristic of Debussy's "late style" – austere, concentrated, and visionary – as also seen in the first two of his Sonatas and the suite for two pianos En blanc et noir, composed contemporaneously.
Building on Chopin's Études and Liszt's Transcendental Études, the work addresses various aspects of pianistic technique, from intervals (thirds, fourths, sixths, octaves) and digital mechanisms in the first book, to explorations of new sonorities in the second.
Context
In the years leading up to World War I and the composition of his Études, Debussy faced numerous challenges despite widespread recognition of his work across Europe and the United States: Pelléas et Mélisande was performed in Brussels, Berlin, Frankfurt, Milan, Munich, and New York City. Although theater directors and concert organizers invited him to present his works from 1907, his career encountered new difficulties.
The premiere of Le Martyre de saint Sébastien on 22 May 1911 was a failure. According to Jean Barraqué, "the reception was mixed" due to the "pretentiously mystical poem" by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Jeux, premiered by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes on May 15, 1913, met with "a lukewarm, even indifferent public: some applause, some boos". This same public elevated Igor Stravinsky to prominence with the scandal of The Rite of Spring, premiered two weeks after Jeux.
Critics and audiences perceived Debussy as "declining", while Maurice Ravel and Stravinsky were "rising". Although Vladimir Jankélévitch argues that "it would be wrong to think Ravel surpassed Debussy in a kind of arms race where Stravinsky then outdid him" in exploring new harmonies, the rivalry between the two French composers peaked in 1913, when Ravel composed his Trois poèmes de Mallarmé simultaneously with Debussy's . Stravinsky recalled that "in 1913, Debussy and Ravel were not speaking". Jankélévitch acknowledges that "it is possible that the hardening of Debussy's late works was largely due to Ravel's influence". Debussy's personal and financial situation deteriorated sharply after the death in February 1907 of a wealthy uncle of his wife Emma Bardac, who was disinherited. The uncle, who "always disapproved of his niece's relationship with a composer who, unlike Richard Strauss, could not earn a living, let alone support his wife and daughter", bequeathed his fortune to the Pasteur Institute. Consequently, Debussy accepted all concert invitations despite his aversion to public appearances and lack of experience as a conductor.
World War I The declaration of war on 3 August 1914 caught Debussy off guard, as he had spent the first half of the year travelling and performing incessantly to meet financial obligations. During the July Crisis, his mood swung between exaltation and despair. In a letter to a friend, he wrote of "hours when one sees little but suicide as an escape", revealing his seemingly depressive state:
The outbreak of hostilities silenced his musical activities. In a letter to his publisher Durand on August 8, he described himself as "a poor atom swept up in this terrible cataclysm. What I do seems so miserably small! I end up envying Erik Satie, who is seriously preparing to defend Paris as a corporal". Until the end of 1914, Debussy remained inactive. His depression worsened as the war continued, contrary to his hopes for a resolution by Christmas. His correspondence reflects a chauvinism criticized by biographers. On March 11, 1915, he published a patriotic article in L'Intransigeant titled "Enfin, seuls !..." comparing France and the German Empire musically:
1915
In early 1915, Debussy worked on a new edition of Chopin's works for Éditions Durand, letter from Debussy to Jacques Durand, January 27, 1915. With German editions withdrawn due to the war, he contributed to an original publication, consulting the manuscript of Chopin's Second Ballade in F major, Op. 38, owned by Camille Saint-Saëns.
This editorial work prompted deep reflection on pianistic technique, distracting him from his progressing rectal cancer, diagnosed in 1909, which worsened to the point where doctors recommended surgery while acknowledging its terminal nature.
The death of his mother on 23 March 1915 deeply affected him. He discussed the meaning of death in letters to friends, including Paul Dukas, Gabriel Fauré, Gabriel Pierné, and the young composer Edgard Varèse, mobilized to the École de guerre in April.
Amid external and internal struggles, Debussy emerged from silence with bold aesthetic choices. Signed "Claude Debussy, French musician", his upcoming works were, per Gilles Macassar and Benoit Mérigaud, "war works in every sense: wartime compositions, economical, rationed, concentrating their means and condensing their effects", fulfilling a vision from 1908, when he told Harper's Weekly:
Composition The twelve Études are among Debussy's final works, composed in 1915. Ill and staying in Pourville, Normandy, letter from Debussy to Jacques Durand, 14 July 1915., he found temporary vitality. Marguerite Long, in her memoir Au piano avec Claude Debussy, recalls how
Debussy composed the two-piano suite En blanc et noir in June–July, the Sonata for Cello and Piano in late July–early August, and the Sonata for Flute, Viola and Harp in late September–early October. These works share, per Harry Halbreich, "a similar inspiration and aesthetic". The Études were composed between the two Sonatas, at the explicit request of Jacques Durand, who provided a pension and sought new music in return, from 5 August to 29 September 1915. Composer and pianist André Boucourechliev reflects:
Debussy's correspondence dates specific pieces, such as the étude Pour les agréments (August 12) and Pour les sixtes (August 22, his fifty-third birthday). Musicologist Heinrich Strobel describes him as "seized by a true creative frenzy". On September 30, Debussy wrote to Durand:
On 7 December 1915, Debussy underwent surgery for his cancer, severely weakening him, letter from Debussy to Jacques Durand, 26 December 1915. Jean Barraqué notes that "it is symptomatic of his patriotic fervor that his rare public appearances in his final years were at concerts for war charities". Durand published the two books of Études in 1916, letter from Debussy to Jacques Durand, 9 February 1916.
Overview According to Jean Barraqué, the two books address distinct aspects of pianistic technique: "The first book focuses on digital mechanics. The second volume proposes – and this represents an original contribution to the literature of this form – a study of sonorities and timbres", resulting, in his words, in a "true auditory anthology". André Boucourechliev offers a more nuanced perspective:
Book I "Pour les cinq doigts" (For the five fingers), after Mr. Czerny "Pour les tierces" (For thirds) "Pour les quartes" (For fourths) "Pour les sixtes" (For sixths) "Pour les octaves" (For octaves) "Pour les huit doigts" (For eight fingers) Book II "Pour les degrés chromatiques" (For chromatic steps) "Pour les agréments" (For ornaments) "Pour les notes répétées" (For repeated notes) "Pour les sonorités opposées" (For opposing sonorities) "Pour les arpèges composés" (For composite arpeggios) "Pour les accords" (For chords)
Examining the composer's manuscripts, Paul Roberts notes:
In the contract signed with Éditions Durand on 3 September 1915, the announced order for the Études included different titles for two of the twelve pieces:
"Pour le Gradus ad Parnassum "Pour les sonorités opposées" (For opposing sonorities) "Pour les accords" (For chords) "Pour les arpèges mélangés" (For mixed arpeggios) "Pour les huit doigts" (For eight fingers) "Pour les sixtes" (For sixths) "Pour les octaves" (For octaves) "Pour les quartes" (For fourths) "Pour les degrés chromatiques" (For chromatic steps) "Pour les notes répétées" (For repeated notes) "Pour les tierces" (For thirds) "Pour les agréments" (For ornaments)
References and form
Debussy's Études are firmly rooted in a musical tradition shaped by considerations of pianistic technique. According to Jean Barraqué, "the studies intended for student practice could intimidate when composed by the finger gymnasts of the 19th century. But Chopin and Liszt lent admirable musical nobility to a genre meant for pedagogy. Debussy embraces this lineage".
Closer to Chopin's Twenty-four Études than Liszt's Transcendental Études in their effort to "soften the hammers of the piano", Debussy's Études present formidable technical challenges while remaining thoroughly musical. In letters to his publisher, the composer stated that "these Études conceal rigorous technique beneath harmonic blossoms". On September 27, 1915, he added that "beyond technique, these Études will usefully prepare pianists to better understand that one should not approach music solely with formidable hands".
However, musicologists agree that "Debussy adheres to the rules of the game". Like his predecessors, he assigns each étude a specific challenge: "this purpose is upheld, explored, and executed with supreme acrobatics", with the second book addressing "not an interval or pianistic case, but a broader situation. More risk, more invention, more genius. Less pedagogy, more freedom". According to pianist Paul Crossley, Debussy "almost rediscovers, reinvents: the character, emotion, and sonority of these pieces are unlike any other in the pianistic literature, including, curiously, Debussy's other works".
Antoine Goléa suggests that "upon reflection, this approach seems curious and, in reality, adheres little to pianistic technique considerations". However, for Alfred Cortot,
Around the Études
Dedication The Études are dedicated to the memory of Frédéric Chopin – "at least theoretically", notes André Boucourechliev, as "the dedication to the Pole was omitted in the published edition". Debussy initially considered François Couperin, finding in these Études "the spirit of Baroque dance", according to pianist Philippe Cassard. On August 15, he shared his hesitation with his publisher: "I have as much respectful gratitude for one as for the other of these two admirable masters, such marvelous diviners". Thus, it was, according to the composer, "not without some apprehension" that the twelve pieces were published in homage to Chopin, with Debussy fearing unfavorable comparisons.
According to Émile Vuillermoz, "these are pages of high technical and pedagogical value, but, like Chopin's Études, they are masterpieces of absolute music". André Boucourechliev argues that these twelve Études "have little to do with the famous Twenty-four, for while each is devoted to a specific pianistic situation, they do not provide practice material for pianists. As much as Chopin's are essential for progress, Debussy's are aimed at an accomplished musician, summarizing all they know or are presumed to know". Heinrich Strobel emphasizes that the technical aspect of the challenges posed by the Études "stands out more clearly than in Chopin. Despite their shared nature, this reflects the difference in eras and generations".
In her memoirs, Marguerite Long attests to Debussy's great admiration for Chopin's music and confirms that, rather than Couperin, he chose to dedicate the work to him: