The land of Provence has a history quite separate from that of any of the larger nations of Europe. Its independent existence has its origins in the frontier nature of the dukedom in Merovingian Gaul. In this position, influenced and affected by several different cultures on different sides, the Provençals maintained a unity which was reinforced when the region was made a separate kingdom during the Carolingian decline of the later ninth century. When Boso of Provence acquired the region in 879, it was known as Lower Burgundy until it was merged with Upper Burgundy in 933 to form the Kingdom of Arles. The counts of Arles began calling themselves "count of Provence"; although in name vassals, they were de facto autonomous princes. After 1032, the county was part of the Holy Roman Empire.

In the eleventh century, Provence became disputed between the traditional line and the counts of Toulouse, who claimed the title of "Margrave of Provence". In the High Middle Ages, the title of Count of Provence belonged to local families of Frankish origin, from 1112 to 1245 to the House of Barcelona (a cadet branch of the House of Aragón), from 1245 to 1382 to the House of Anjou, and from 1382 to 1481 to a cadet branch of the House of Valois. It was inherited by King Louis XI of France in 1481, and definitively incorporated into the French royal domain by his son Charles VIII in 1487.

Merovingian dukes During the period of the Merovingian dynasty in Gaul, Provence was a province ruled by duces (dukes), military leaders and district commanders who served as defenders of the frontiers of the kingdom and ruled over vast territories as opposed to the comites (counts), who ruled the cities and their environs. Provence was usually a part of the division of the Frankish realm known as the Kingdom of Burgundy, which was treated as its own kingdom. Their title sometimes appears as rector Provinciae.

This is an incomplete list of the known Merovingian-appointed dukes of Provence.

Liberius (until 534), Ostrogothic appointee Namatius (bef. 552), Frankish appointee Bodegisel (fl. c. 566) Adovarius (561–569) Lupus (569–570) Jovin (570–573) Albin (573–575) Dinamius (from 575) Gondulf (fl. c. 581) Leudegisel (fl. c. 585), of Burgundian Provence Nicetas (from 587) Babo (fl. c. 600) Aegyla (fl. c. 602) Bado (634–641) Willibad (641–643), of Burgundian Provence Hector (fl. c. 679) Nemfidius (fl. c. 700) Antenor (fl. c. 697) Metrannus (fl. c. 700) Maurontus (c. 720 – 739) Abbo (fl. c. 739)

Carolingian dukes Provence was ruled by a poorly known series of dukes during the period of general Carolingian unity until the Treaty of Verdun (843).

Leibulf (until c. 829) Guerin (c. 829 – 845) Fulcrad (845 – c. 860)

Carolingian kings After the division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun (843), the first of the fraternal rulers of the three kingdoms to die was Lothair I, who divided his middle kingdom in accordance with the custom of the Franks among his three sons. Out of this division came the Kingdom of Provence, given to Lothair's youngest son, Charles. A heritage of royal rule was thus inaugurated in Provence which, though it was often subsumed into one of its larger neighbouring kingdoms, was just as often proclaiming its own sovereigns.

The kingdom of Provence was also known as Lower Burgundy (or Cisjurane Burgundy). Its capital was first Vienne then Arles.

Charles of Provence (855–863)On his death, Provence was divided between his surviving brothers, Lothair II and the Emperor Louis II. The bulk went to Louis. Louis II (863–875), also Holy Roman Emperor from 855On his death, as with his Kingdom of Italy, Louis's Provence went to his uncle Charles the Bald . Charles the Bald (875–877), also Holy Roman Emperor from 875 Louis the Stammerer (877–879)With the death of Louis the Stammerer, Provence refused to elect his two sons and instead elected one of their own as king. Boso married Ermengard, daughter of Louis II, to strengthen his and his son's claim. Boso (879–887) Louis the Blind (887–928), also Holy Roman Emperor from 901 to 905Louis's kingdom did not pass to his heirs, but instead to his brother-in-law, the husband of his sister, Hugh, who had acted as his regent since 905. Hugh never used the royal title in Provence. Hugh (911–933)In 933, Provence ceased to be a separate kingdom as Hugh exchanged it with Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy for the Iron Crown of Lombardy, that is, rule of Italy.

Counts and margraves, within the Empire In the aftermath of the death of Louis the Blind, Provence began to be ruled by local counts placed under the authority of a margrave. Firstly, Hugh of Arles served as duke and regent during Louis' long blindness. Secondly, Hugh gave the march of Vienne and duchy of Provence to Rudolf II of Burgundy in a treaty of 933. Rudolf was never recognised by the nobles of the country and appointed Hugh, Duke of Burgundy, as its first margrave.

At the time, the premier counts in the region were the counts of Arles and those of Avignon. Those who would first bear the title comes Provinciae or "count of Provence" descended from one Rotbold of Arles. William I and Rotbold I did not divide their father's domains and this indivisibility was maintained by their respective descendants. It is thus impossible to ascertain who succeeded whom in the county as various reigns overlap.

By his marriage to Emma of Provence, daughter of Rotbold II, William III, Count of Toulouse inherited lands and castles in Provence. Emma inherited the title Margrave of Provence upon her elder brother's death in 1037. Her son Pons by William III did not survive her, but her grandson did and claimed her title in opposition to the younger line of counts of Provence.

Bosonid dynasty

Name Born Reign Consort Death Notes William I the Liberator c.950Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne 961–975 Arsenda of Commingesno childrenAdelaide-Blanche of Anjouc.984four children After 29 August 993 First counts of Provence and brothers, ruled together until 975, when William took the margravial title. and Rotbold took the same title in 993, after William abdication. 975–993 Rotbold I Son of Boson II of Arles and Constance of Vienne 961–993 Emildetwo children 1008 993–1008Regency of Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou:993–999 William II the Pious c.980Son of William I and Adelaide-Blanche of Anjou 999–1019 Gerberga of Burgundyc.984four children 4 March 1019 Fell under control of his uncle Rotbold until his death in 1008. Rotbold II c.980Son of Rotbold I and Emilde 1008–1014 Ermengarde of Burgundybefore 1002three children 1014 William III Son of Rotbold II and Ermengarde of Burgundy 1014–1037 Luciebefore 1002three children 1037 William IV c.980Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy 1019–1030 Unmarried 1030 Fulk Bertrand c.1000Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy 1030–1051 Hildegardtwo children 27 April 1051 Brothers, ruled jointly after their elder brother's death. Geoffrey I c.1000Son of William II and Gerberga of Burgundy 1030–1062 Etienettefour children February 1062 After William III's death with no descendants, the line of counts became the sovereign line in Provence, but not uncontested. In fact, through Emma, who inherited her brother William III's margravial title, her descendants, the counts of Toulouse, claimed Provence for themselves as margraves, in spite of never having ruled there. 1062–1094 William IV of Toulouse 1094–1105 Raymond IV of Toulouse 1105–1112 Bertrand of Toulouse 1119–1125 Alfonso Jordan of Toulouse William Bertrand I c.1040Son of Fulk Bertrand and Hildegard 1062–1094 Theresa of Aragonno childrenAdelaide of Cavenezone child 28 July 1094Co-ruled as brothers and cousins. Geoffrey II c.1040Son of Fulk Bertrand and Hildegard 1062–1067 Ermengardno children 13 February 1067 William Bertrand II c.1050Son of Geoffrey I and Etienette 1063–1093 Matildaone child 1093 Gerberga 1045/65Daughter of Geoffrey I and Etienette 1094–1112 Gilbert I of Gévaudan1073two children 1115 Considered a wise ruler.Clement, Francois. L' Art De Vérifier Les Dates Des Faits Historiques, Des Chartes, Des Chroniques, Et Autres Anciens Monumens, Depuis La Naissance De Notre-Seigneur, p. 436 (Jombert, 1784). She abdicated in 1112 to her eldest daughter, soon after her marriage to the count of Barcelona.

House of Gévaudan Name Born Reign Consort Death Notes Douce I c.1090Daughter of and Gerberga 1112–1127 Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona3 February 1112Arlesfive children 1127 Ruled together with her husband, the Catalan Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona.

Houses of Barcelona (comital) and Toulouse (margravial)

With a lack of interest in the Reconquista on their southern frontier, the Catalans turned towards their origins, the Mediterranean littoral and northwards. They coveted the region between the Cévennes and the Rhône, then under the control of Toulouse. In 1112, the count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer III, married the heiress of Provence, Douce, who was the daughter of the Countess Gerberga of Provence, Gévaudan, Carladais, and part of Rodez. The marriage was probably taken at the urging of the church, which was then in conflict with the House of Toulouse. In 1076, Count Raymond IV was excommunicated, but he still lent his support to Aicard, the deposed archbishop of Arles (since 1080). With the count away on the First Crusade, the church took the opportunity to seize the balance of power in the region. This marriage effectively put Provence under Catalan control.

To accommodate the longstanding claims of the count of Toulouse, in 1125, Raymond's heir, Alfonso Jordan, signed a treaty whereby his family's traditional claim to the title of "Margrave of Provence" was recognised and the march of Provence was defined as the region north of the lower Durance and on the right of the Rhône, including the castles of Beaucaire, Vallabrègues, and Argence. The region between the Durance, the Rhône, the Alps, and the sea was that of the county and belonged to the house of Barcelona. Avignon, Pont de Sorgues, Caumont and Le Thor remained undivided.

Internally, Provence was racked by uncertainties over rights of succession. Douce and Ramon Berenguer signed all charters jointly until her death in 1127, after which he alone appears as count in all charters until his death in 1131. At that time, Douce's younger sister, Stephanie was married to Raymond of Baux, who promptly laid claim to the inheritance of her mother, even though Provence had peacefully passed into the hands of her nephew, Berenguer Ramon I.