A japamala, , or simply mala (; , meaning 'garland') is a loop of prayer beads commonly used in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. It is used for counting recitations (japa) of mantras, prayers or other sacred phrases. It is also worn to ward off evil, to count repetitions within some other form of sadhana (spiritual practice) such as prostrations before a holy icon. They are also used as symbols of religious identification.
The main body of a mala usually consists of 108 beads of roughly the same size and material as each other, although smaller versions, often factors of 108 such as 54 or 27, exist. A distinctive 109th "guru bead" or mother bead, which is not counted, is very common.
Mala beads have traditionally been made of a variety of materials such as wood, stone, gems, seeds, bone and precious metals—with various religions often favouring certain materials—and strung with natural fibres such as cotton, silk, or animal hair. In the modern era, synthetic materials can also be used, such as plastic or glass beads, and nylon cords. Malas are similar to other forms of prayer beads used in various world religions, such as the misbaha in Islam and the rosary in Christianity.
History
Origin The specific origin of the mala is unknown, with the use of beads for counting being a widespread practice among ancient cultures. No references to malas appear in Chinese literature before the introduction of Buddhism during the Han dynasty, suggesting that the practice may have originated in India before spreading to China. No mention of a mala occurs in the Buddhist Agamas or Pali Nikayas, generally regarded as the oldest Buddhist literature. It is therefore unclear whether the use of malas originated among Buddhists or among Brahmins, Jains, or another Indian religious community.
Early attestations
Malas may appear in early Hindu art as part of the garb of deities or worshippers, but are difficult to distinguish from decorative necklaces or garlands. The earliest clear depiction of a mala being used as a tool for recitation, rather than as a (possible) decorative necklace, comes from a bodhisattva image created during the Northern Wei dynasty (4th - 6th century) in China; the mala is held in the hand, rather than worn.
The first literary reference to the use of a mala for the recitation of mantras comes from the Mu Huanzi Jing ( or , "Aristaka/Soap-Berry Seed Scripture/Classic", Taishō Tripiṭaka volume 17, number 786), a Mahayana Buddhist text purported to have been translated into Chinese during the Eastern Jin era, sometime in the 4th - 5th century CE.
No mention of this text occurs in standard bibliographies before the 6th century, but an independent translation in the 8th century suggests an origin as a Sanskrit text transmitted from Central Asia, rather than a Chinese composition. According to this text, a king asks the Buddha for "an essential method that will allow me during the day or night to engage easily in a practice for freeing us from all sufferings in the world in the future." The Buddha instructs the king to make a mala from the seeds of a soapberry tree (likely the aristaka, the Indian soapberry tree) and recite an homage to the three jewels while passing the mala through his fingers. The text also states the mala should be worn at all times, and that if a million recitations were completed, the king would end the one hundred and eight passions.
Another Mahayana Buddhist source which teaches the use of a mala is found in the Chinese canon in The Sutra on the Yoga Rosaries of the Diamond Peak (金剛頂瑜伽念珠経, Ch.: Chin-kang-ting yü-ch’ieh nien-chu ch’ing, Taisho 789) which was translated by the Buddhist vajracarya Amoghavajra (705–774). The text states that the mala should be worn around the neck and that this purifies bad karma.
Rudraksha japamalas are discussed in some Hindu sources, such as in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana (9th-14th century) which explains how to make a rudraksha garland, and in the Rudrakṣajābāla upaniṣad. The Rudrakṣajābāla upaniṣad states that the rudrakshas are tears of Shiva, and as such, they should always be worn by devotees of Shiva. It discusses various ways of wearing them, and which mantras to use with them.
Regarding Vaishnava sources, the Garuda Purana and the Padma Purana both teach the use and wear of a mala made from tulasi wood (tulasi kanthi mala). The Garuda Purana explains that by wearing this mala, Hari (Vishnu) will always be with the devotee. It also states that wearing a tulasi mala will multiply the benefit of doing good karmic deeds, as well as providing magical protection from harm. The Padma Purana says one should always wear the tulasi mala, whether one is pure or impure, even while bathing, eating or going to the toilet.
China
While the earliest Buddhist story about the mala is associated with lay practice, in China it was initially primarily associated with monastic practice. The first Chinese Buddhist author to promote the use of malas was the Pure Land patriarch Daochuo (562–645). Images of monks with malas began to appear in China in the 7th century CE and the mala seems to have been regarded as a common piece of monastic equipment by around this era. While there are relatively few pre-Song dynasty depictions or references to the mala, this may be due to its use in private religious practice rather than public ceremony. Chinese authors criticized monks who recited mantras on their malas in public, as monks were generally expected to remain silent while on public alms rounds.
By the Ming dynasty-era, malas increasingly began to be valued for their aesthetic qualities as much or more than their spiritual use and were often worn by royals and high officials. Malas of expensive or rare materials became common as gifts given among the wealthy, and the materials allowed to different grades of wives and concubines was regulated by sumptuary laws. Depictions of Qing dynasty court officials often include malas, intended to show their status and wealth rather than as an indication of spirituality.
Materials
Common materials are wood from the sandalwood tree, along with the seeds of various trees, and precious or semiprecious stones.
Strings may be made from practically any fibre, traditionally silk or wool or cotton though synthetic monofilaments or cords such as nylon can now be found and are favoured for their low cost and good wear resistance. Elastic cords, such as milliner's elastic, may be used and have the advantage that they can stretch to fit over the wearer's hand if worn on the wrist whereas other material may not wrap a sufficient number of times to prevent the mala from slipping off. Beads may also be joined by metal chains.
Hinduism Beads made from the fruitstones of the rudraksha tree (Elaeocarpus ganitrus) are considered sacred by Saivas, devotees of Siva, and its use is taught in the Rudrakshajabala Upanishad. Beads made from the wood of the tulsi plant are used and revered by Vaishnavas, followers of Vishnu.
Mahayana Buddhism
A very popular type of mala among Mahayana Buddhists are those made of "bodhi seeds", which are actually made from various species belonging to Arecaceae and Fabaceae rather than of the seeds of the bodhi tree. The most common bead types in China and Tibet are:
"Phoenix eye" beads, made from Ziziphus abyssinica or Ziziphus jujuba "Moon and Stars" beads, made from Calamus jenkinsianus "Bodhi root" beads, made from Corypha umbraculifera "King Kong" beads (i.e. Rudraksha), made from Elaeocarpus angustifolius
Tibetan Buddhism
Various types of malas (Tibetan: trengwa) are used in Tibetan Buddhism, including "Bodhi seed" (commonly made from seeds of a Ziziphus tree), wood (such as sandalwood), bone and precious stones. Tibetan Buddhists generally consider malas made from precious stones as the best kind. Some popular stones are agate, sapphire or lapis lazuli. Semiprecious stones such as carnelian and amethyst may be used, as well.
Some common general-purpose malas in Tibetan Buddhism are made from rattan seeds (especially Calamus jenkinsianus). These beads are called "moon and stars" by Tibetans, and variously called "lotus root", "lotus seed" and "linden nut" by various retailers (though it does not come from any Nelumbo plants). The bead itself is very hard and dense, ivory-coloured (which gradually turns a deep golden brown with long use), and has small holes (moons) and tiny black dots (stars) covering its surface.
Tibetan Buddhists also teach that certain types of malas can enhance specific practices or bring specific benefits. For example:
malas made of wood (sandalwood or bodhi tree wood), bodhi seeds, various jewels, or ivory are all purpose malas and are said to be good for all kinds of mantras and practices crystal, pearl, conch, nacre, wood, seeds, or other clear or white in colour beads may be used to count mantras used for peaceful deity yoga practices and for purification practices. For these types of practices, white colored beads and a white colored thread is preferred. beads made of precious metals like gold or silver may be used for increasing practices, such as increasing lifespan, knowledge, or merit; For these types of practices, yellow colors and colored thread are preferred. Red Coral is for magnetizing / power practices, and red color is used for the threads. The colour red is also associated with the Padma family of buddhas (who are highly revered in Tibet). Rudraksha, bone, iron, steel and turquoise is preferred for subjugating malicious spirits or for the tantric transformation of powerful afflictions like anger (this is sometimes called "wrathful practice"). For these types of practices, black is the preferred colour.
One type of wooden mala bead has a shallow trench engraved around their equator into which tiny pieces of red coral and turquoise are affixed. Due to the cost of already harvested or fossilized red coral and its conservation status, as well as the cost of turquoise, plastic or glass may be used instead.
Nepal In Nepal, mala beads are made from the natural seeds of Ziziphus budhensis, a plant in the family Rhamnaceae endemic to the Temal region of Kavrepalanchok in Bagmati Province.
The Government of Nepal's Ministry of Forestry has established a committee and begun to distribute seedlings of these plant so as to uplift the economic status of the people living in this area.
Japanese Buddhism
In Buddhism in Japan, Buddhist prayer beads are known as or , where the "o" is the honorific o-. Different Buddhist sects in Japan have different shaped prayer beads, and use them differently. Most Japanese Buddhist malas are made out of various types of wood, such as rosewood, plumwood, and lignum vitae.
For example, the Shingon and Tendai generally use longer prayer beads (108 beads) with counter strands on both ends for recording multiple rounds of recitation (Tendai malas have 2 recorder bead strands, Shingon malas have four). These recorder strands usually end in decorative tassels.
During devotional services, the beads may be rubbed together with both hands to create a soft grinding noise, which is considered to have a purifying and reverential effect. A notable feature of Tendai school's prayer beads is the use of flat beads called "soroban beads" for the main beads (while most of the other sects use spherical beads). For the Shingon school, they use a red string as the main string for the 108 beads and white tassels for the counter beads.
Nichiren schools generally use long 108 bead nenjus with five counter strands with ornamental tassels.
The Japanese Zen schools use long 108 bead nenjus without counter / recorder bead strands.
Meanwhile, in Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land), prayer beads are typically shorter and held draped over both hands and are not ground together, as this is forbidden.