The extensive and rapid clearing of forests (deforestation) within the borders of Nigeria has significant impacts on both local and global scales.Deforestation estimates in Nigeria stand at 163 Kha/year, with 12% of tree cover lost between 2001 and 2022.
Activities such as expanding agriculture, logging, urbanisation, and infrastructure development contributes to deforestation and presents various challenges against afforestation efforts. Deforestation in Nigeria has raised concerns regarding its link to poverty and its environmental consequences.
History and context
Nigeria is recognised for its ecological biodiversity. It is considered one of the richest biodiversity hotspots globally, significantly contributing to the country's economic prosperity. Historically, significant forest reservations have been established in Nigeria, representing 27% of the total forest cover and 10 per cent of the land area, approximately . Two-thirds of these reserves are in the savanna region, while the remaining percentages are in tropical forest zones in the south, freshwater swamps, and mangroves in the coastal region.
Nigeria's Forest Reserves consist of 1,160 designated areas covering approximately . These reserves constitute around 11% of Nigeria's total landmass, spread across 362 local government areas. Notably, Lewechi forest reserve in Okigwe, Imo state, is the smallest, covering an area of , whereas Borgu forest reserve in New Bussa, Niger state, is the largest, encompassing an area of .
In 1960, the country had eight national parks, 445 forest reserves, twelve strictly nature reserves, and 28 game reserves. Despite conservation efforts, these areas have experienced high levels of human activities leading to deforestation, encroachment, and degradation. The eight national parks are Gumpti Park, Kainji Lake Park, Cross River Park, Old Oyo Park, Chad Basin Park, Yankari Park, Kamuku Park, and Okomu Park. The deforestation problem, compounded by human activity, has severely impacted Nigeria's rich biodiversity, including 864 bird species, 285 mammal species, 203 reptile species, 117 amphibian species, 775 fish species, and 4,715 species of higher plants. The population of rare Cross River gorillas has notably decreased due to poaching and habitat destruction. Deforestation has caused economic challenges, affecting agricultural yield and livelihoods. Environmental issues, including deforestation, have led to conflicts and even the execution of environmental activists such as Ken Saro-Wiwa, a Nobel Peace Prize nominee.
Deforestation overview Deforestation refers to the removal of vegetation without simultaneous replanting for various economic or social purposes. This process has multifaceted adverse effects on the natural environment, contributing to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, wildlife reduction, land degradation, and desertification. Furthermore, deforestation significantly impacts agriculture, leading to conflict and affecting overall quality of life. These primary forests encompass areas with no visible signs of human activities. Notably, deforestation intensifies carbon dioxide circulation, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.
The Food and Agriculture Organization outlines criteria for sustainable forest management, such as; maintaining forest resources, biodiversity, health, and productive, protective, and socio-economic functions. These benchmarks are presently not met, posing potential detrimental effects if not addressed promptly.
From 2001 to 2022, Nigeria lost 1.25 Mha of tree cover, and experienced a deforestation rate of 163 Kha/year, the 15th fastest rate among nations. (The fastest being Brazil with 1,700 Kha/year)
The nation has lost 12% of its relative tree cover since 2000, accounting for 0.27% of the global total.
The country faces a massive risk of desertification due to extensive deforestation, which compromises once-fertile land. Studies from 1901 to 2005 found a temperature increase of 1.1°C in Nigeria, surpassing the global average of 0.74°C. During the same period, rainfall decreased by 81mm, with significant changes occurring in the 1970s.
The alarmingly rapid deforestation is attributed to the demand for fuel wood. Approximately 90% of the Nigerian population depends on kerosene for cooking, but due to its unavailability or high cost, 60% resort to using fuel wood. Rural areas observe higher usage, influencing livelihoods, while poverty remains a significant driver of deforestation.
Despite an increase in national parks and reserves, only 3.6% of Nigeria is protected under the International Union for Conservation of Nature categories I-V. Inadequate forest management by the Department of Forestry since the 1970s is a significant contributor to the deteriorating ecosystem. The country lacks decisive measures to combat illegal logging and lower the deforestation rate.
Deforestation jeopardises various environmental, economic, and societal facets, potentially leading to forest degradation, characterised by extreme soil erosion, loss of nutrients, and extinction of plant and animal species. Additionally, this environmental issue is further aggravated by climate change, potentially causing an upsurge in diseases, pests, and forest fires. The foremost cause, considered an indirect driver of deforestation, is the most significant. While Nigeria's forests make a substantial contribution to the GDP, diligent policies to regulate human activities within forests and preserve this valuable resource are lacking. This disconnect between fiscal policies and the value of forest resources, coupled with inadequate incentives for alternatives, leads to issues like high fossil fuel prices, unemployment, and underfunded forest management initiatives.Pearce, D. and Brown, K. (1994). Saving the World's Tropical forests. In The Causes of Tropical Deforestation. UCL Press, pp 2 – 26.
Several elements contribute to deforestation in Nigeria About 60% of tropical forest clearing in Nigeria is for agricultural settlement. Shifting agriculture, involving underbrushing, felling, and slash-and-burn methods, leads to permanent destruction of rainforests, responsible for approximately half of tropical deforestation. Over a century, Nigeria's land area decreased from 60 million hectares to 9.6 million hectares, marking significant forest loss due to infrastructural expansions and industrial setups. These developments often encroach upon forests, impacting local livelihoods without assured benefits or compensation.
Deforestation in Nigeria is influenced by various factors, including climate change (albeit a minor fraction), logging, biotic agents, and manual deforestation by individuals and organisations. Primary drivers include agriculture expansion, logging, legal and illegal felling and urbanisation. For instance, recent findings highlighted a 99.2-hectare land allocation for an international market in Enugu State, leading to deforestation at Opi in Nsukka Local Government Area (Field Survey, October 2023).
Impact of logging
The impact of logging on deforestation involves; cutting down trees, processing them locally, and transporting them via trucks, contributing significantly to global deforestation.
When companies engage in commercial logging, it leads to deforestation. Logging industries provide wood varieties like ebony, mahogany, teak, and meranti to the global market, leading to a depletion of forests. Transporting logs involves two methods: water transportation in swampy areas and road transportation where equipment can move smoothly.
Various actors engage in wood logging in Nigeria, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), multilateral banks (World Bank, Inter-American Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank), international financial institutions (International Monetary Fund), transnational and national businesses, development agencies, and governments. These actors play various roles but also have detrimental effects on indigenous populations, underdeveloped nations, and the global community.
Global asymmetries in economic development contribute to a divide between industrialised and underdeveloped nations. Multilateral institutions pressure local governments to settle foreign obligations, leading to environmental damage and increased poverty. Development plans emphasise export-oriented exploitation of natural resources, focusing on wood as a profitable business, neglecting other forest dimensions like biodiversity, food, or medicinal plants.
National governments support logging operations despite local inhabitants' presence in the forests due to vested interests of the ruling class and transnational corporations. Selective logging has a modest impact compared to incidental damage caused by the machinery used, which significantly alters the forest ecosystem, inhibiting tree regeneration and threatening biodiversity.
Deforestation in Nigeria has significant environmental consequences, including soil erosion, declining biodiversity, altered climate, increased carbon emissions, population declines, and increased risks of landslides and flooding. Ecosystems are disrupted, limiting access to clean water.
Addressing deforestation by protecting forests and promoting sustainable practices is crucial to mitigate its adverse impacts on the environment and ensure long-term environmental health.
Agriculture
The growing population in Nigeria has intensified the demand for food, leading to annual destruction of large forest areas by bush burning or logging to create farmland. Shifting cultivation, a farming practice where farmers relocate in search of fertile land, accelerates land deterioration and forces exploration of new forest borders, thereby increasing deforestation.
In Nigeria, disputes between local farmers and Fulani herdsmen during the 1960s led to property destruction, displacement, and livelihood disruption. Grazing practices are a significant contributor to deforestation, and addressing these crises requires governance, justice, equity, and adherence to rule of law.
Small ruminant farming
Small ruminant farming involves raising animals like sheep and goats for their meat, milk, and other products. While a sustainable practice for food production, it can contribute to deforestation in various ways.
Reducing the impact of small ruminant farming on deforestation can be achieved through sustainable grazing methods, such as rotating grazing areas and using less destructive methods. Moreover, improving the efficiency of animal feed production using sustainable sources can help mitigate the impact on forests. Raising awareness of the environmental impacts among farmers can encourage the adoption of more sustainable practices.
Petroleum exploration Petroleum exploration and exploitation in the southern part of Nigeria have had significant impacts on the swamp forest ecosystem and mangrove forests in the Niger Delta region. According to the Department of Petroleum Resources, approximately 419 oil spills have occurred on land, resulting in the loss of an estimated 5 to 10 per cent of the mangrove forest area. The inadequate coordination of pipelines and environmental concerns has left many in the region unemployed, with limited farming opportunities and a diminished forest reserve to rely on.
The expectation that fuel provision would sustain communities has been affected by conflicts arising from oil theft, pitting indigenous groups against the government. These conflicts, coupled with oil spills, have also compromised the quality of drinking water, posing a threat to public health.