Events from the year 1921 in France.
Incumbents President: Alexandre Millerand President of the Council of Ministers: Georges Leygues (until 16 January), Aristide Briand (starting 15 January)
Events
Alexandre Millerand had been elected president of the republic in 1920, with Georges Leygues taking his place as prime minister. Frequent changes of ministry had shown that even in peace times an unstable government was in a difficult situation. In a time of unrest and insecurity, the interests of the government might be wholly prejudicial to those of the country.
Millerand's acts during his ministry both in his domestic and his foreign policy had met with the unanimous approval of the nation, and his popularity reached its height in September 1920, when by 695 votes out of 892 he was elected president of the republic. Among the members of Parliament opposed to his appointment there were many keen partisans of the leader whose eminent qualities had been put to the test during a period of over eight months. They did not wish to see Millerand occupying a merely representative position, which is all the French constitution allows to the president. They wanted to see so able a man at the helm of the ship of state, with real and not apparent power. Hopes were therefore raised in some quarters that the constitution would be amended to give more scope to the president. But these hopes were dashed to the ground when, on 12 January, Leygues retired from office.
The Chamber of Deputies, by dismissing the minister selected by Millerand, expressed its wish to give power to a strong man whose conduct was not to be modified by any influence. Lack of firmness was the principal fault with which Leygues was charged by the majority of the Parliament. As a matter of fact, the dismissal of the premier was expected as an imminent event when Parliament reopened on 11 January.
On that day Raoul Péret, who was reelected chairman of the Chamber, delivered a most interesting speech dealing with the difficulties of the moment. Leygues' request for the postponement of the intended interpellations of several deputies until after the inter-Allied conference due on the 19th was refused in the House by 447 votes out of 563. The cabinet was therefore compelled to retire. Next day the Senate met and reelected Léon Bourgeois as its chairman.
Millerand confided to Péret, chairman of the Chamber, the task of constituting a new ministry. After having endeavoured to obtain the cooperation of various personalities specially designated by the voice of public opinion, Péret found he was unable to surmount the difficulties caused by private antagonisms. He was particularly unsuccessful in obtaining the support of Aristide Briand and Raymond Poincaré, whose views on certain points of foreign policy differed from his own.
Thereupon Briand was entrusted with the difficult task of forming a cabinet. Briand had already been premier three times. Born in 1862 at Nantes, he was first elected deputy in 1902 for the Department of Loire, which reelected him until 1914. He was minister of public instruction in 1906, minister of justice in 1908, and prime minister in 1909. He was again prime minister in 1913 and, during the war, from 1915 to 1917. In 1919 he was reelected deputy by the Department of Loire-Inférieure, the chief town of which is his native place.
Like most French politicians Briand had gradually changed his mind in the course of the last years before the war. From fervent socialism he turned towards moderate opinions; as they say in France, "he put water into his wine".
On 16 January Briand succeeded in constituting his cabinet as follows:
| Presidency of the Cabinet Council and Minister for Foreign Affairs Aristide Briand
| Minister of Justice Laurent Bonnevay
| Minister of Finance Paul Doumer
| Minister of the Interior Pierre Marraud
| Minister of War Louis Barthou
| Minister of Marine Gabriel Guist'hau
| Minister of Public Instruction Léon Bérard
| Minister for the Liberated Districts and Reparations Louis Loucheur
| Minister of Agriculture Edmond Lefebvre du Prey
| Minister for the Colonies Albert Sarraut
| Minister of Commerce Lucien Dior
| Minister of Labour Daniel Vincent
| Minister of Pensions André Maginot
| Minister of Public Health Georges Leredu
| Minister of Public Works Yves Le Trocquer
In accordance with the suggestion made by the British government that, owing to the French ministerial crisis, the inter-Allied conference should be postponed, the new government agreed that the conference should take place on 24 January.
On 17 January nine under-secretaries of state were appointed as follows:
| Presidency of Cabinet Council Théodore Tissier
| Interior Maurice Cobrat
| Post and Telegraphs (Public Works) Paul Laffont
| Stocks (Finances) André Paisant
| Merchant Marine Rio
| Technical Instruction Gaston Vidal
| Liberated Districts Lugol
| Food (Agriculture) Puis
| Air Ministry Laurent Eynac
The new cabinet appeared before Parliament on 20 January, the ministerial declaration being read by Briand in the Chamber and by Pierre Marraud in the Senate. This long declaration, modelled on the usual patterns, expressed much that was encouraging, but was not as explicit as the remarkable speech which Briand delivered on the following day, and which dealt with the political programme of the new government. In regard to foreign policy, Briand expressed his firm intention to make Germany pay, and he also promised to make every effort toward the revival of diplomatic relations with the Vatican.
The Chamber expressed its confidence in the new cabinet by 462 votes out of 539.
On the 24th, the Paris conference opened at the Foreign Office, with Briand in the chair. Eight days had been sufficient for him to make himself familiar with the grave problems of the moment, and France realized and valued the marvellous effort of the new premier.
The leading personalities of the delegations at the conference were: for France, Briand, Louis Barthou, and Philippe Berthelot; for Britain, David Lloyd George and Lord Curzon; for Italy, Count Carlo Sforza, Count Lelio Bonin Longare, and Marquis Pietro Tomasi Della Torretta; for Belgium, Henri Jaspar and Georges Theunis; and for Japan, Viscount Kikujiro Ishii.
The conference lasted five days, and was marked by a complete agreement among the Allies. The terms of the conditions of disarmament and reparations fixed by unanimous accord were forwarded to Germany.
On the day before the conference ended (28 January) there took place the solemn burial of the Unknown Soldier under the Arc de Triomphe. Barthou, the war minister, delivered a most moving oration, and Lloyd George who was present threw into the grave Britain's floral tribute.
Amongst the significant events which occurred in January, the dissolution of the General Confederation of Labour (C.G.T.) is not the least important. The breaking-up of this organization was promulgated on the 13th by the Tribunal Correctionnel following on the revolutionary strikes which had occurred in April and May 1920. The majority of the nation approved of this course. Many workmen themselves had protested against certain strike-orders, given by their leaders, as was alleged, for merely political or revolutionary purposes; and no doubt the C.G.T. had lost the support of public opinion.
Before the close of January there was a distinct improvement in the value of the franc, which dropped from sixty to fifty-two for the pound sterling.
During the whole of February French opinion watched the attitude of Germany with no little expectancy.
On the 1st Millerand expressed his most ardent congratulations to Briand and his colleagues on the part they had taken in the Paris conference. The results of the conference were placed before the Chamber by Briand on 3 February, and after discussing the question for seven days, the House expressed its confidence in the cabinet by 387 votes out of 522.
On 19 February, three more generals were promoted "marshals of France", viz., General Émile Fayolle, General Louis Franchet d'Esperey, and General Hubert Lyautey. These, together with Marshal Joseph Joffre, Marshal Ferdinand Foch, and Marshal Philippe Pétain, raised the number of French marshals to six.
During February Marshal Józef Piłsudski, the head of the Polish state, paid a visit to France in the interests of Franco-Polish amity.
Franco-British friendship was also deepened as a result of Lloyd George's reply to the German delegation at the London conference. Indeed, never since the armistice had the Entente Cordiale been so greatly appreciated in France. The results of the conference were approved by the Chamber on 17 March, after a two days' debate, by 490 votes out of 559. French troops joined British and Belgian battalions in the further occupation of German territory. The Chamber had already authorized the minister of war, on 4 March, to incorporate the conscripts born in 1901.
The government also cultivated Franco-American relations. On 19 March René Viviani, a former prime minister, was sent to the United States, where he was received in special audience by President Warren G. Harding.
Meanwhile, questions of finance were before both houses of Parliament. Early in April the Senate discussed expenditure on foreign affairs, finally agreeing to the proposals of the government. The Senate also agreed to the government's request for 120 million francs for the continuance of French propaganda in Syria. The budget of 1921 was finally discussed by the Senate on 16 April. One of the provisions of the Finance Law limited the number of ministries in future to twelve, and of under-secretaries of state to four.
On 12 April, by a unanimous vote of the Chamber, the dignity of Marshal of France was granted to the late General Joseph Gallieni, who defended Paris in 1914.
An event of national importance of a much earlier date was commemorated by Joan of Arc's day (8 May) instituted as a national holiday by the law of July 1920. On 16 April Marraud, minister of the interior, sent to the prefects a circular regarding this celebration, requesting them to take the necessary steps in order to solemnize the day with great display. He pointed out that the memory of Jeanne d'Arc should not be the exclusive possession of any one religious body, but should be the common property of the whole nation. These sentiments, echoed by a cabinet minister, reflected the government's changed attitude towards the Catholic Church which culminated in the endeavour to reestablish diplomatic relations with the Vatican.
As regards the inter-Allied decisions, the Senate on 21 April ratified the laying of a 50% tax on German imports as decided at the last London conference. In the following week Briand started for London to attend the inter-Allied conference. From London, on 2 May, he instructed the war minister by telephone to call back the 1919 class to the colours, in view of the possible decision of the Allies to occupy the Ruhr district, in accordance with the scheme drawn up by Marshal Foch. But as on 10 May Germany acceded to the Allied terms, this possibility did not arise. Nevertheless, the 1919 class were not liberated until 21 June.
It is worthy of note that May Day passed off in France without any popular manifestations. All the more remarkable were the other celebrations during May. On the 4th and 5th France recalled the hundredth anniversary of the death of Napoleon; on the 8th Jeanne d'Arc's day was fitly observed; while on the 15th an important meeting of athletic societies was held at Lille which Millerand attended, thus giving his high approval to the general tendency towards the encouragement of sport in France.