In the traditional religion and mythology of the Andean civilizations of Peru and Bolivia, an is the term used to describe the spirits of certain mountains, volcanos, and sometimes solitary rocks, typically displaying anthropomorphic features, that protect the local people. While some researchers, such as Christian Mader and colleagues, view the mountains as the dwelling place of powerful deities and ancestors, others, such as Ana Mariella Bacigalupo and Guillermo Salas Carreño, contend that the are the actual mountains.
can be considered either masculine or feminine, and have varying personalities, with some being protectors and others being malicious. are the most active in the month of August and can have romantic and familial ties with each other.
are one type of , which refer to material manifestation of the divine, and can include temples, shrines, sculptures, natural landforms, as well as other material objects and bodies.
are frequently associated with condors and are often seen as ancestors.
Meaning means "Lord" in Quechua as well as sacred mountain or mountain deity. is a Quechuan term, and they're frequently called si-pong in the Chimu language.
is the most common name for mountain spirits in the Cuzco region of Peru, while they are usually called in Huanuco, in Ayacucho, and , , or in different regions in Bolivia. Despite the various names, Victoria Castro and Carlos Aldunate argue that due to their similarities, they likely represent a Pan-Andean type of spirit. Stella Nair also views as Pan-Andean spirits with regional differences.
Johan Reinhard states that these various names for mountain deities are sometimes used as different names for the same type of spirit, but are also used in certain regions to describe the deities who occupy certain levels in a spirit hierarchy, with the most powerful deities residing in the tallest mountains.
History
The veneration of mountain peaks possibly dates back to the Initial Period of the pre-hispanic Andes, which took place from 2000 to 900 BCE.
Apu Campana was worshipped and appeased via human sacrifices and through the offerings of food and beverages, by the Moche, Chimu, and Incan Empires.
The Inca Empire placed their buildings, shrines, and terraces at sacred locations including and abnormal outcrops, which were viewed as shrines of Pachamama. By doing so, they were able to transform the power of the land to themselves, give themselves spiritual authority, and control access to these sacred spaces.
The Incas also frequently used mountains as sites of child sacrifices which may have functioned to request irrigation water or to claim legitimacy.
As Catholicism was adopted by Indigenous people in the Andes, there was a decrease in and hostility towards traditional Andean religious beliefs, including the worship of . This hostility is expressed in the Indigenous artist Francisco Chihuantito's painting .
Since 2012, (healers) have engaged in spiritual tourism, where tourists will pay to perform ceremonies to invoke the to heal them. Role and powers not only serve as a protector for local people near the mountain they reside in, but can also be called upon to assist other people who are not in the vicinity. also are connected to water, fertility, and agriculture in the area near where they reside and are responsible for the distribution of natural resources. The role of mountain deities as a protector in Andean religion also makes them serve as war deities.
If an is offended, they might cause harm to people residing nearby their mountain, through illness, accidents, natural disasters, or other means. will also replenish their life-force by "eating" people who die from illness or accidents near them.
Andean mountain spirits form a hierarchy based on the height of their peaks, and communicate with each other across regions, with the taller and higher-ranking giving orders to the shorter and lower-ranking ones, in order to properly manage natural resources.
In Andean communities, the relationship humans have with each other and with deities is often described with the word , a Quechuan and Aymaran term meaning "reciprocity". In this system, relationships are maintained through continually giving and receiving gifts. The need for rituals to be continually performed, means that the relationship humans have with the divine can alternate between being in balance and being imbalanced. This reciprocal relationship is mostly discussed with relationships between humans and between humans and divinities, but also exists between humans and the natural world, humans and ancestors, and between non-human entities.
For the Quechua-speaking community, different entities in the universe live according to a hierarchy, with and Pachamama on the top, then humans, and then alpacas and llamas. Ancestors also occupy a level in the hierarchy.
For many Indigenous people, "believing" in gives them more power to harm you for your transgressions, causing some people to choose not to believe in them. However, they also contend, that are material beings, who still effect the environment and can still harm people who do not believe in them. For example, an Indigenous man named Pablo stated following a massive flood,
For this reason, some Indigenous people might choose not believe in , but still venerate and feed them with offerings.
Modern day veneration While Indigenous Andeans believed they could directly understand moods in the past, today they can only be understood indirectly through signs such as a person's health, events, or through dreams.
Rites
are still venerated today. For example, in the Palpa district of Peru, local people will bring seawater to the summit of the , Cerro Llamocca to ask for rain during periods of drought.
Another rite that is performed for is , in which one blows on coca leaves to bring their prayers to the . The specific details of this ritual vary in different communities, but they usually involve coca leaves, llama fat, sugar alcohol, cigarettes, and sometimes involved animal sacrifices.
In the coastal area of Northern Peru, will channel the consciousness of through ceremonially ingesting a mescaline brew made from (San Pedro cactus). During this ceremony, the will also use (a portable altar or medicine bundle containing ceremonial objects) that serve as a representation of the cosmos contain items such as ritual stones, shells, and sacred water taken from certain and lakes.
In the Uchumiri Community in Yanaquihua District in Peru, the dance is a ritual that honors both Pachamama as well as Coropuna, in order to provide for the safe return of llama herders.
are also venerated through the incremental building of stone piles called by passer-bys.
Veneration among Christians and other mountain deities are also venerated among Christians in the Andes. For example, some Peruvian Christians believe Saint Peter holds the key to the spirit world within Coropuna.
In addition, certain saints may be associated with specific mountain deities, and some areas use the cross as a symbol for the mountain deities. Indigenous people from Northern Peru oftentimes will make pagos to as well as to crosses, and some Indigenous Northern Peurivan have interpreted Saint Cyprian and Jesus as .
Some converts to Evangelicalism will continue to venerate and Pachamama in secret.
In the Northern Peru, many Indigenous will combine the Indigenous shamanic ideas of directly knowing something () that can be perceived or experienced, with the Christian idea of believing () in beings like God and Jesus who are imperceptible. In this way, the can know the , while believing in God and Jesus.
and environmentalism Some Indigenous Andeans view the effects of climate change as expressions of pain and wrath for disrespecting and corrupting the natural world. In this worldview, are turned to as ethical leaders to guide humans towards a respectful coexistence with the Earth. Corruption, greed, and environmental destruction are often viewed as stemming from the same source, which is a disrespect of the sentient world. Therefore, to protect from mining and industrial agriculture, activists must also fight corruption and greed. help in this fight, by offering spiritual protection from the government officials, mining companies, and others who wish to harm both and the community.
Traditionally, The community decided when to plant tubers for a successful harvest, by appointing a community member as an , to observe the Pleiades and make offerings to an and Pachamama. A poor harvest is viewed as the failing to fulfill their role. In recent times, climate change has increased the chances of a poor harvest, making the task increasingly difficult.
Some view the effects of climate change as a scientific phenomenon and others view it as the end of the current cycle of time. However, most view the effects of climate change as them losing their ability to communicate with and receive gifts from and Pachamama. This is viewed as the result of the abandoning some of their traditional ceremonial practices that link them with and Pachamama, and the decreasing scope and participation of the practices that remain. Evangelical churches, particularly the Maranata Church, proselytizing to the and the conversion of some people to these faiths, are also viewed as a contributor to the fraying of relationships with non-human divinites.
However, despite the increase in climate change related devastation, many still venerate and Pachamama, and note that this is not the first time they have had difficulty influencing the natural environment. In order to survive the impacts of climate change, many are working to re-establish frayed relationships, and maintain existing relationships with and Pachamama.
Specific
+NameRegionSourceAusangatePeru, Cuzco regionWamanlipaPeru, Cuzco regionSalkantayPeru, Cuzco regionMama SimonaPeru, Cuzco regionPillku UrquPeru, Cuzco regionManuel PintaPeru, Cuzco regionWanakawriPeru, Cuzco regionPachatusanPeru, Cuzco regionPikchuPeru, Cuzco regionSaksaywamanPeru, Cuzco regionViraqochanPeru, Cuzco regionPukinPeru, Cuzco regionSinqaPeru, Cuzco regionAkamariAntikunaPeru, Junín regionChachaniPeru, Arequipa regionKimsa ChataIllampuBolivia, La Paz region)Lady of IllimaniMachu PicchuPeru, Machupicchu DistrictPitusirayPutucusiPeru, Cuzco regionQullqipunkuPeru, Cuzco regionSinaqaraPeru, Cuzco regionTunupaBolivia, Potosí regionWillka Wiqi (Wakay Willka)Peru, Cuzco regionWamanrasuPeru, Huancavelica regionWayna PicchuPeru, Cuzco regionYanantinPeru, Cuzco regionCerro BaúlPeru, Moquegua regionCerro WiracochanPeru, Cuzco regionPichu PichuPeru, Arequipa regionColinePeru, Puno regionLlamoccaPeru, Arequipa regionSolimanaPeru, Arequipa region
See also
wamani (Inca mythology) or huamani - mountain god
References
Notes
References