Proto-Circassian (or Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Adyghean and Kabardian languages.
Phonology
Note on Orthography: This article employs Cyrillic characters alongside IPA to assist readers familiar with the Circassian alphabet. However, standard Adyghe orthography contains inconsistencies; notably, the digraph кӀ represents the sound [t͡ʃʼ] despite visually suggesting a velar ejective [kʼ]. To ensure phonetic precision, this article utilizes the following distinctions: чӀ for [t͡ʃʼ], чӀъ for [ʈʂʼ], and кӀь for [kʲʼ].
Orthographic Convention This article uses specific Cyrillic notation to resolve ambiguities in the standard alphabet: чӀ [t͡ʃʼ] (Standard кӀ) чӀъ [ʈʂʼ] (Retroflex) кӀь [kʲʼ] (Palatalized velar)
Consonants The consonant system is reconstructed with a four-way phonation contrast in stops and affricates, and a two-way contrast in fricatives.
Shifts The following table shows how Proto-Circassian consonants diverged and evolved in the Western and Eastern dialects.
Proto-Circassian Western Circassian (Adyghe) Eastern Circassian (Kabardian) Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian ( in some dialects) ( in some dialects) ( in some dialects) ( in some dialects) Proto-Circassian Western Circassian Eastern Circassian Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian / / / Proto-Circassian Western Circassian Eastern Circassian Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian Proto-Circassian Western Circassian Eastern Circassian Shapsug Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh Besleney Kabardian
Specific Shifts Aspirated, plain and tense consonants In Proto-Circassian each voiceless obstruent could appear in up to three manners: an aspirated (lax) variant, a plain variant, and a tense (geminate) variant.
The aspirated series survived in the Shapsug and Bzhedug dialects, while it became plain in the other dialects (Abzakh, Chemgui, Kabardian).
The tense series survived in the western dialects (Shapsug, Hatuqay, Bzhedug), merged into plain voiceless consonants in Chemgui (Temirgoy), and became voiced in the eastern dialects (Besleney and Kabardian). In linguistics literature the tense consonants are often written with a colon (e.g. ) to denote gemination/tenseness, and in some Cyrillic orthographies with double letters (e.g. пп, тт, цц) or a colon (e.g. п:, т:, ц:).
In the tables below, dialects are grouped under West Circassian (Shapsug, Bzhedugh & Hatuqay, Chemgui, Abzakh) and East Circassian (Besleney where attested, and Kabardian). Bzhedugh and Hatuqay share a single column. The subsections group each consonant's aspirated and tense reflexes together.
Bilabial p Aspirated: →
Tense: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → noise пʰэ [pʰa] пʰэ [pʰa] пʰэ [pʰa] пэ [pa] пэ [pa] пэ [pa] sharp пʰапсӀэ [pʰaːpsʼa] пʰапсӀэ [pʰaːpsʼa] пʰапцӀэ [paːpt͡sʼa] папцӀэ [paːpt͡sʼa] папцӀэ [paːpt͡sʼa] папцӀэ [paːpt͡sʼa] arrogant пʰагэ [pʰaːɣa] пʰагэ [] пʰагэ [pʰaːɣa] пагэ [paːɣa] пагэ [paːɣa] пагэ [paːɣa] nose пʰэ [pʰa] пʰэ [] пʰэ [pʰa] пэ [pa] пэ [pa] пэ [pa] hedgehog пʰыжьэ [pʰəźa] пʰыжьэ [pʰəźa] пʰыжьэ [pʰəźa] пыжьэ [pəźa] пыжьэ [pəźa] пэжь [paź] pleasure гӀуапʰэ [ɡʷapʰa] гӀуапʰэ [ɡʷapʰa] гӀуапэ [ɡʷapa] гӀуапэ [ɡʷapa] гӀуапэ [ɡʷapa] гӀуапэ [ɡʷapa]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → thorn (bush) п:анэ [pːaːna] п:анэ [pːaːna] п:анэ [pːaːna] панэ [paːna] панэ [paːna] банэ [baːna] strong, solid п:ытэ [pːətă] п:ытэ [pːətă] п:ытэ [pːətă] пытэ [pətă] пытэ [pətă] быдэ [bədă] steam п:ахэ [pːaxă] п:ахэ [pːaxă] п:ахэ [pːaxă] пахэ [paxă] пахэ [paxă] бахэ [baxă]
Dental t Aspirated: →
Tense: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → respect пхъатʰэ [pχaːtʰa] пхъатʰэ [] пхъатʰэ [pχaːtʰa] пхъатэ [pχaːta] пхъатэ [pχaːta] — to give етʰын [jatʰən] етʰын [jatʰən] етʰын [jatʰən] етын [jatən] етын [jatən] етын [jatən] to take штʰэн [ʃtʰan] штʰэн [ʃtʰan] штʰэн [ʃtʰan] штэн [ʃtan] штэн [ʃtan] щтэн [ɕtan] on тʰет [tʰajt] тʰет [tʰajt] тʰет [tʰajt] тет [tajt] тет [tajt] тет [tat] smooth цӀашъутʰэ [t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa] цӀашъутʰэ [t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa] цӀашъутʰэ [t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa] цӀашъутэ [t͡sʼaːʃʷta] цӀашъутэ [t͡sʼaːʃʷta] цӀафтэ [t͡sʼaːfta] to be afraid щтʰэн [ɕtʰan] щтʰэн [ɕtʰan] щтʰэн [ɕtʰan] щтэн [ɕtan] щтэн [ɕtan] щтэн [ɕtan] pillow шъхьантʰэ [ʂħaːntʰa] шъхьантʰэ [] шъхьатʰэ [ʂħaːtʰa] шъхьантэ [ʂħaːnta] шъхьантэ [ʂħaːnta] щхьантэ [ɕħaːnta] basket матʰэ [maːtʰa] матʰэ [maːtʰa] матʰэ [maːtʰa] матэ [maːta] матэ [maːta] матэ [maːta]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → we т:э [tːa] т:э [tːa] т:э [tːa] тэ [ta] тэ [ta] дэ [da] leader тхьэмат:э [tħamaːtːa] тхьэмат:э [tħamaːtːa] тхьэмат:э [tħamaːtːa] тхьэматэ [tħamaːta] тхьэматэ [tħamaːta] тхьэмадэ [tħamaːda] sun т:ыгъэ [tːəɣa] т:ыгъэ [tːəɣa] т:ыгъэ [tːəɣa] тыгъэ [təɣa] тыгъэ [təɣa] дыгъэ [dəɣa] wing т:амэ [tːaːma] т:амэ [tːaːma] т:амэ [tːaːma] тамэ [taːma] тамэ [taːma] дамэ [daːma]
Front affricate t͡s Aspirated: →
Tense: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → wool цʰы [t͡sʰə] цʰы [] цʰы [t͡sʰə] цʰы [t͡sʰə] цы [t͡sə] цы [t͡sə] eyelash нэбзыцʰ [nabzət͡sʰ] нэбзыцʰ [nabzət͡sʰ] нэбзыцʰ [nabzət͡sʰ] нэбзыц [nabzət͡s] нэбзыц [nabzət͡s] —
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian East Circassian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Besleney Kabardian Shift: → fish пц:эжъые [pt͡sːaʐəja] пц:эжъые [pt͡sːaʐəja] пц:эжъые [pt͡sːaʐəja] пцэжъые [pt͡saʐəja] пцэжъые [pt͡saʐəja] бдзэжъей [bd͡zaʐej] бдзэжьей [bd͡zaʑej] mouse ц:ыгъо [t͡sːəʁʷa] ц:ыгъо [t͡sːəʁʷa] ц:ыгъо [t͡sːəʁʷa] цыгъо [t͡səʁʷa] цыгъо [t͡səʁʷa] дзыгъуэ [d͡zəʁʷa] дзыгъуэ [d͡zəʁʷa]
Middle affricate t͡ɕʷ (labialized) Aspirated: →
Tense: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → jungle чъʰуны [t͡ɕʷʰənə] чъʰуны [t͡ɕʷʰənə] чъʰуны [t͡ɕʷʰənə] цуны [t͡ʃʷənə] цуны [t͡ʃʷənə] фын [fən]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh haystack хьанжъо [ħanʒʷa] хьанжъо [ħanʒʷa] хьанжъ [ħanʒʷ] хьанжъо [ħanʒʷa] хьанжъо [ħanʒʷa] хьэвэ [ħavə]
Palatal affricate kʲ → t͡ʃ Aspirated: →
Tense: → /
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / spleen кьʰэ [kʲʰa] кьʰэ [kʲʰa] чʰэ [t͡ʃʰa] чэ [t͡ʃa] чэ [t͡ʃa] чэ [t͡ʃa] brushwood кьʰы [kʲʰə] кьʰы [kʲʰə] чʰы [t͡ʃʰə] чы [t͡ʃə] чы [t͡ʃə] чы [t͡ʃə] to cough пскьʰэн [pskʲʰan] пскьʰэн [pskʲʰan] псчʰэн [pst͡ʃʰan] псчэн [pst͡ʃan] псчэн [pst͡ʃan] псчэн [pst͡ʃan]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian East Circassian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Besleney Kabardian Shift: → / glass апкь: [aːpkːʲ] апкь: [aːpkːʲ] апч: [aːpt͡ʃː] апч [aːpt͡ʃ] апч [aːpt͡ʃ] абгь [ʔaːbɡʲ] абдж [ʔaːbd͡ʒ] chicken кь:эт [kːʲat] кь:эт [kːʲat] ч:эты [t͡ʃːatə] чэты [t͡ʃatə] чэты [t͡ʃatə] гьэд [ɡʲad] джэд [d͡ʒad]
Labialized velar kʷ Aspirated: →
Tense: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → thigh кʰо [kʷʰa] кʰо [] кʰо [kʷʰa] ко [kʷa] ко [kʷa] куэ [kʷa] middle кʰу [kʷʰə] кʰу [] кʰу [kʷʰə] ку [kʷə] ку [kʷə] ку [kʷə]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian East Circassian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Besleney Kabardian Shift: → short кӀьак:о [kʲʼaːkːʷa] кӀьак:о [kʲʼaːkːʷa] кӀак:о [t͡ʃʼaːkːʷa] кӀако [t͡ʃʼaːkʷa] кӀако [t͡ʃʼaːkʷa] кӀьагуэ [kʲʼaːɡʷa] кӀагуэ [t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa] wheat к:оц [kːʷat͡s] к:оцы [kːʷat͡sə] к:оцы [kːʷat͡sə] коцы [kʷat͡sə] коцы [kʷat͡sə] гуэдз [ɡʷad͡z] гуэдз [ɡʷad͡z]
Uvular q Aspirated: → (Kabardian )
Tense: → (Adyghe); (Kabardian)
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / grave кʰъэ [qʰa] кʰъэ [] кʰъэ [qʰa] къэ [qa] къэ [qa] кхъэ [q͡χa]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / clean къ:абзэ [qːaːbza] къ:абзэ [qːaːbza] къабзэ [qaːbza] къабзэ [qaːbza] къабзэ [qaːbza] къабзэ [qʼaːbza]
Labialized uvular qʷ Aspirated: → (Kabardian )
Tense: → (Adyghe); (Kabardian)
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / pig кʰъо [qʰʷa] кʰъо [] кʰъо [qʰʷa] къо [qʷa] къо [qʷa] кхъуэ [q͡χʷa] cheese кʰъуае [qʰʷaːja] кʰъуае [qʰʷaːja] кʰъуае [qʰʷaːja] къуае [qʷaːja] къуае [qʷaːja] кхъуей [q͡χʷaj] ship кʰъохь [qʰʷaħ] кʰъохь [qʰʷaħ] кʰъохь [qʰʷaħ] къухьэ [qʷəħa] къухьэ [qʷəħa] кхъухь [q͡χʷəħ] to fart къэкʰъун [qaqʰʷəʃʷən] къэкʰъун [qaqʰʷəʃʷən] къэкʰъун [qaqʰʷəʃʷən] къэкъушъун [qaqʷəʃʷən] къэкъушъун [qaqʷəʃʷən] къэцыфын [qat͡səfən] peer кʰъужъы [qʰʷəʐə] кʰъужъы [qʰʷəʐə] кʰъужъы [qʰʷəʐə] къужъы [qʷəʐə] къужъы [qʷəʐə] кхъужьы [q͡χʷəʑə] pear къожьы [qʰʷəźə] къожьы [qʰʷəźə] къожьы [qʰʷəźə] къожьы [qʷəźə] къожьы [qʷəźə] къожь [qʷəź]
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / son къ:о [qːʷa] къ:о [qːʷa] къо [qʷa] къо [qʷa] къо [qʷa] къо [qʷa] mountain къ:ушъхьэ [qːʷəʃħa] къ:ушъхьэ [qːʷəʃħa] къушъхьэ [qʷəʃħa] къушъхьэ [qʷəʃħa] къушъхьэ [qʷəʃħa] къушхьэ [qʷəʃħa]
Postalveolar fricative ʃ Aspirated: → /
Retroflex variant: →
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian Kabardian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Shift: → / brother чʰы [t͡ʃʰə] шʰы [ʃʰə] шʰы [ʃʰə] шы [ʃə] шы [ʃə] къуэш [qʷaʃ] lame лъашʰэ [ɬaːʃʰa] лъашʰэ [] лъашʰэ [ɬaːʃʰa] лъащэ [ɬaːɕa] лъащэ [ɬaːɕa] лъашэ [ɬaːʃa] milk шʰэ [ʃʰa] шʰэ [] шʰэ [ʃʰa] щэ [ɕa] щэ [ɕa] шэ [ʃa] salt шʰыгъу [ʃʰəʁʷ] шʰыгъу [] шʰыгъу [ʃʰəʁʷ] щыгъу [ɕəʁʷ] щыгъу [ɕəʁʷ] шыгъу [ʃəʁʷ] cloud пшʰэ [pʃʰa] пшʰэ [pʃʰa] пшʰэ [pʃʰa] пщэ [pɕa] пщэ [pɕa] пшэ [pʃa] pus шʰыны [ʃʰənə] шʰыны [] шʰыны [ʃʰənə] щыны [ɕənə] щыны [ɕənə] шын [ʃən] accordion пщынэ [pɕəna] пшʰынэ [] пщынэ [pɕəna] пщынэ [pɕəna] пщынэ [pɕəna] пщынэ [pɕəna] fat пшʰэры [pʃʰarə] пшʰэры [] пшʰэры [pʃʰarə] пщэры [pɕarə] пщэры [pɕarə] пшэр [pʃar] wax щэфы [ɕafə] иэфы [] щэфы [ɕafə] щэфы [ɕafə] щэфы [ɕafə] щэху [ɕaxʷə] horse шʰы [ʃʰə] шʰы [ʃʰə] шʰы [ʃʰə] шы [ʃə] шы [ʃə] шы [ʃə] sand пшʰахъо [pʃʰaːχʷa] пшʰахъо [] пшʰахъо [pʃʰaːχʷa] пшахъо [pʃaːχʷa] пшахъо [pʃaːχʷa] пшахъуэ [pʃaːχʷa] story пшʰысэ [pʃʰəsa] пшʰысэ [] пшʰысэ [pʃʰəsa] пшысэ [pʃəsa] пшысэ [pʃəsa] пшысэ [pʃəsa]
Postalveolar fricative ʃ (additional lax–tense reflexes) The book records further lax and tense back-sibilant reflexes, including a glottalized member.
Word Proto-Circassian West Circassian East Circassian Shapsug Bzhedugh & Hatuqay Chemgui Abzakh Besleney Kabardian mountain top, surface шʰагъо [ʃʰaɣʷa] шʰагъо [ʃʰaɣʷa] шагъо [ʃaɣʷa] шагъо [ʃaɣʷa] шагъо [ʃaɣʷa] щагъуэ [ɕaɣʷa] measure, size шʰапхъэ [ʃʰaːpχa] шʰапхъэ [ʃʰaːpχa] шапхъ [ʃaːpχ] шапхъ [ʃaːpχ] шапхъ [ʃaːpχ] щапхъэ [ɕaːpχa] to collect шʰапӀэ [ʃʰapʰa] шʰапӀэ [ʃʰapʰa] — — — щапӀэ [ɕapʼa] internal fat шъэ [ʃa] шъэ [ʃa] шъэ [ʃa] шъэ [ʃa] шъэ [ʃa] щэ [ɕa] to measure (space) шъы [ʃə] шъы [ʃə] шъы [ʃə] шъы [ʃə] шъы [ʃə] щы [ɕə] hunter; to hunt шъакӀо [ʃakʷʼa] шъакӀо [ʃakʷʼa] шъакӀо [ʃakʷʼa] шъакӀо [ʃakʷʼa] шъакӀо [ʃakʷʼa] щакӀуэ [ɕakʷʼa] axe Ӏуашъэ [waːʃʼa] Ӏуашъэ [waːʃʼa] Ӏуашъэ [waʃʼa] Ӏуашъэ [waʃʼa] Ӏуашъэ [waʃʼa] Ӏуэщ [waɕ] to shear (sheep) шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] щэ [ɕa] three шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] шъэ [ʃʼa] щы [ɕə] princess гуашъэ [ɡʷaːʃʼa] гуашъэ [ɡʷaːʃʼa] гуашъэ [ɡʷaːʃʼa] гуашъэ [ɡʷaːʃʼa] гуашъэ [ɡʷaːʃʼa] гуащэ [ɡʷaːɕa] prince пшъэ [pʃʼa] пшъэ [pʃʼa] пшъэ [pʃʼa] пшъэ [pʃʼa] пшъэ [pʃʼa] пщэ [pɕa]
Back affricates t͡ʃ / t͡ʂ (tense) Tense palato-alveolar: → /
Tense retroflex: → /