Mourning of Muharram (; ; ) is a set of religious rituals observed by Shia Muslims during the month of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. These annual rituals commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia Imam. Husayn and his small retinue were slaughtered in the Battle of Karbala on 10 Al-Muharram 61 AH (680 CE) by the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid I (). Husayn's suffering and martyrdom became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, and for justice and truth against injustice and falsehood. He is a universal, borderless, interfaith and meta-religion symbol. Husayn and his companions are widely regarded as martyrs by all Muslims.
Mourning for Karbala began with its female survivors, particularly Husayn's sister Zaynab, and evolved over time into distinct rituals that help define the Shia identity. Nowadays, most mourning rituals take place during the first ten days of Al-Muharram, culminating with processions on the tenth day, known as Ashura. The main component of mourning ceremonies is the recitation of Karbala narratives intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears. Elegies and dirges are also chanted in such gatherings, as the participants strike their chests to share in the pain of Husayn and benefit from his intercession on the Day of Judgement. Extreme forms of self-flagellation are also sometimes practiced, often involving self-inflicted bloodshed. Theatrical reenactment of Karbala narratives is a historically significant ritual found mostly in Iran.
Origins Muharram is the first month of the Islamic calendar and one of the four sacred months in which warfare is prohibited in Islam. In Shia Islam, the tenth of Muharram, known as Ashura, commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 AH (10 October 680 CE) in the Battle of Karbala against the much larger army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the capital Damascus in Syria. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by Muslim historians as impious and immoral. The fight took place in the desert land of Karbala, en route to the nearby Kufa, whose residents had earlier invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.
Muharram rituals in Shia Islam
In addition to pilgrimage to the shrine of Husayn, located in Karbala, Iraq, Shia Muslims annually commemorate the events of Karbala throughout the months of Muharram and Safar, following the precedent of their imams. Most rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on the tenth with processions in major Shia cities. The main component of ritual ceremonies (, ) is the narration of the stories of Karbala (, ), and the recitation of elegies and dirges (, , ), all intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears. A often takes place in a dedicated building or structure, known variously as , , , or .
Self-flagellation
Another component of mourning gatherings is the self-flagellation of participants to the rhythm of Karbala elegies. Rooted in ancient Arab practices, mild forms of self-flagellation, striking one's face and chest in grief (, , ), are common today in mourning rituals, intended to share in the pain of Husayn. Striking one's back with special chains () is another harmless practice, found in Iran and Iraq. But there are also extreme forms of self-flagellation (, , ), in which the participants strike themselves, usually on the forehead or back, with knives, swords, or chains to which razor blades are attached. Banned by Iran and the Shia Hezbollah party of Lebanon since the mid-90s, instrumental self-flagellation has been condemned by many Shia clerics, and it remains an often controversial practice among the Shia.
Passion plays
or is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives, practiced today in Iran, in Shia communities of the western Gulf shore, and in Lebanon. The Arabic word itself is the verbal noun of (). Such plays may be performed in public spaces or dedicated buildings, like s. While Karbala is its focus, the repertoire also includes plays about early prophets and contemporary figures. On Ashura, however, always the "martyrdom of Husayn" is reenacted in such performances. Since the Islamic Revolution in 19781979, some performances are televised and sponsored by the Iranian government to preserve this fading tradition. In Iraq, there are no widespread rituals today, although an annual performance on Ashura in Karbala reenacts the burning of Husayn's tents after the battle by the Umayyads and the captivity of the women and children.
Processions
Processions of mourners (, juloos, ) annually march the streets in Muharram, especially on Ashura, chanting dirges and elegies, sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation. These processions typically start and end at the local , and occasionally represent various local guilds. In Najaf, Iraq, mourners march on the eve of Ashura toward the shrine of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia imam, carrying decorative torches (). In the march in Karbala, male and then female mourners walk barefoot to the shrine of Husayn in the afternoon of Ashura. In such processions, often certain symbolic objects are carried by the mourners, particularly (), which signifies the ensign of Husayn at Karbala carried by his brother Abbas ibn Ali. () is another such symbolcarried in a processionsignifying the bier of Husayn in Karbala, which was made of date palms, according to a legend. Indian processions carry replicas of Husayn's bier or tomb, called , which shares the same name with the theatrical reenactments of Karbala in Iran. The is finally buried or submerged, submersion probably being a Hindu influence. Similar processions take place in Trinidad as part of the annual Hosay commemoration, in which tadjah is the local equivalent of .
Non-Shia rituals
The slaughter of Muhammad's grandson and his relatives shocked the whole Muslim community at the time, and Karbala has been commemorated by some Sunni Muslims ever since, for instance in South Asia, albeit these Sunni rituals may differ from their Shia counterparts. The Sunni remembrance of Karbala, however, has declined in recent times. Indeed, for many other Sunnis, Ashura is instead an important festival in commemoration of the parting of the Red Sea by Moses. It is viewed as a day of thanksgiving (), a joyous occasion, celebrated through pious acts and acceptable expressions of delight. In the Maghreb, for instance, Ashura is celebrated today through fasting, almsgiving, honoring the dead, special dishes, jumping over bonfires, and carnivals. Muharram rituals also appear in Sufism, but therein Karbala is less of a tragedy, but rather the celebration of the eternal life of Husayn and his companions, who annihilated themselves in the Divine with their voluntary deaths.
Significance
Karbala paradigm
In Shia Islam, the Battle of Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil, where Husayn is viewed as the exemplar of piety, sacrifice, and perseverance, while Yazid represents injustice, tyranny, and corruption. The fate of Husayn, the third Shia imam, is regarded in Shi'ism as the acme of human suffering and self-sacrifice, the wrong committed against him so grievous that its repercussions continue, generation after generation, until the eschatological uprising of Muhammad al-Mahdi, the last imam in Twelver Shi'ism, who is thought to be in occultation since 874. Indeed, the victory of Yazid in Karbala is regarded in Shi'ism as the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission, the sabotage that began much earlier with the appointment of Abu Bakr, instead of Ali ibn Abi Talib, to succeed Muhammad, hence the saying, "Husayn was killed on the day of the Saqifa." In Shia view, the preordained but voluntary uprising and sacrifice of Husayn thus preserved the true Islam for future generations, as it awakened the Muslim community to its moral depravity under the Umayyads. In return for his suffering, according to the Shia, Husayn was rewarded the divine prerogative of intercession on Day of Judgement for those followers who share in his pain.
For Shias, mourning for Husayn is a means of remembering his suffering, an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God (), and as such an act of worship. As an act of worship, mourning for Husayn is viewed as redemptive, through which Shias seek atonement for their sins and the sins of all mankind. By sharing in his pain, they also hope to benefit from the intercession of Husayn on the Day of Judgement. Indeed, numerous traditions, attributed to Shia imams, count the divine rewards of mourning for Husayn, particularly weeping for him. As an act of protest, on the other hand, mourning rituals parallel armed struggle which was often not an option for the Shia minority under oppressive regimes. In recent times, Muharram rituals have increasingly developed a political dimension, as preachers compare oppressors now to the enemies of Husayn in Karbala. However, while Karbala indeed provided the Shia with a model for righteous struggle against injustice and oppression, this blueprint has not always translated into action, as most Shia imams were themselves political quietists who lived under oppressive regimes. Muharram rituals also help define and strengthen the Shia identity, and the Karbala paradigm remains an integral part of Shia historical memory, theological understanding, and religious identity. Husayn's martyrdom is often linked to the hagiography of John the Baptist.
Criticism of Muharram rituals
The colorful and emotional Muharram rituals of the Shia are condemned by Sunni scholars, possibly because of the Sunni emphasis on "puritanical piety and sobriety." A Sunni hadith, attributed to Muhammad, reports that he profusely wept for the death of his infant son Ibrahim but forbade mourners from saying anything that would "irritate the Lord." However, there is also another version of the same hadith in Sunni sources, according to which Muhammad forbade raising one's voice in times of misfortune, or mutilating one's face, or tearing one's clothes. By contrast, the Shia imam Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin () is known in Shi'ism for the intensity of his life-long grief over Karbala. The only surviving son of Husayn, Zayn al-Abidin was too sick to fight in the Battle of Karbala. He justified his many years of mourning by citing the Quranic story of Joseph, which describes how his father Jacob mourned his absence to the point that he lost his eyesight. Whatever the case, wailing and striking one's face or chest in grief are ancient Arab traditions for mourning the dead. Others have criticized mourning gatherings, suggesting that their resources should be directed towards the poor. In turn, proponents of Muharram rituals argue that feeding the poor is part of the Karbala culture, usually to fulfill religious vows () made by devotees. The supporters add that displays of generosity are more common during the months of mourning.
Extreme self-flagellation