Manipur

Manipur (, ) is a state in northeastern India, with Imphal as its capital city. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically the Sagaing Region to the east and Chin State to the southeast. Covering an area of 22,330 square kilometers (8,621 sq mi), the state consists mostly of hilly terrain with the 1813-square-kilometre (700 sq mi) Imphal Valley inhabited by the Meitei (Manipuri) community, historically a kingdom. Surrounding hills are home to Naga and Kuki-Zo communities, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. The official language and lingua franca, Meitei (Manipuri), also belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family.

During the days of the British Raj, Manipur was one of the princely states.Naorem Sanajaoba (Editor), Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Volume 4, Chapter 2: NT Singh, Prior to the British departure in 1947, Manipur acceded to the Dominion of India, along with 550 other princely states approximately. In September 1949, the ruler of Manipur signed a merger agreement with India, giving up the rule of the kingdom and obtaining a privy purse in return. Many Meitei people feel that their self-determination was violated by the agreement since the legislature elected under the constitution was not consulted. Ethnic and separatist concerns have resulted in a long-running insurgency against Indian rule. From 2009 through 2018, the conflict was responsible for the violent deaths of over 1000 people.

The Meitei people represent around 53% of the population of Manipur state, followed by various Naga tribes at 20% and Kuki-Zo tribes at 16%. Manipur's ethnic groups practice a variety of religions. According to 2011 census, Hinduism and Christianity are the major religions of the state.

Manipur has primarily an agrarian economy, with significant hydroelectric power generation potential. It is connected to other areas by daily flights through Imphal Airport, the second largest in northeastern India. Manipur is home to many sports and the origin of Manipuri dance, and is credited with introducing polo to Europeans.

Name The name Manipur () was chosen by Gharib Nawaz in the eighteenth century. It is named after a kingdom of the same name mentioned in the Hindu epic. Previously, it had been known as Kangleipak () or Meiteileipak (). Later, the work Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised the Sanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.Gangmumei Kabui, History of Manipur, National Publishing House, Delhi, 1991.

Other names include Sanaleibak (), not given because Manipur has a lot of the gold mines, but because of its happiness and prosperity. This name was mentioned in the 11th-12th century constitution, the Loiyumba Shinyen, and is still heard in the official song of Manipur, "Sana Leibak Manipur".

History

Antiquity

The history of Manipur Meiteis is chronicled in Puyas or Puwaris (stories about the forefathers), namely, the Ninghthou Kangbalon, Cheitharol Kumbaba, Ningthourol Lambuba, Poireiton Khunthokpa, Panthoibi Khongkul, and so forth in the Meitei script, which is comparable to the Thai script. The historical accounts presented here were recordings from the eyes and the judgment of Meitei kings and (Meitei scholars).

The Kingdoms of Möng Kawng and Möng Mao According to the Tai chronicles, Manipur (Kahse) is one of the territories conquered by Sam Lông Hpa (1150–1201), the first Chao Pha of Möng Kawng. A 14th-century inscription from Pagan, Myanmar, mentions Kasan (Manipur) as one of the 21 states under the Mong Mao ruler Thonganbwa (1413–1445/6); he later was captured by the Governor of Taungdwingyi.

Medieval Vassal State of the Toungoo empire Bayinnaung, the ruler of Toungoo dynasty ordered the invasion of Manipur in 1559. He had recalled Binnya Dala from Chiang Mai to lead the invasion. The three armies mostly made up of army from Kale, Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Sanda led the invasion, the King of Manipur surrendered without any resistance and Manipur became a vassal state of the Toungoo empire.Lieberman 2003: 154–155

Vassal state of Konbaung dynasty In the 18th century, Bodawpaya, the king of Burma acquired the Manipur (1814) along with the western kingdoms of Arakan (1784), Assam (1817).

By the medieval period, marriage alliances between the royal families of Manipur, Ahom kingdom and Burma had become common. Medieval era manuscripts discovered in the 20th century, particularly the Puya, provide evidence that Hindus from the Indian subcontinent had married Manipur royalty by at least the 14th century. In centuries thereafter, royal spouses came also from what is now Assam, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh and from other South Indian kingdoms as well. Another manuscript suggests that Muslims arrived in Manipur in the 17th century, from what is now Bangladesh, during the reign of Meidingu Khagemba. The socio-political turmoil and wars, particularly the persistent and devastating Anglo-Burmese wars, affected the cultural and religious demography of Manipur.

British colonial period

In 1824, the ruler of Manipur entered into a subsidiary alliance with the British Empire in the Indian subcontinent, which became responsible for Manipur's external defence. The British recognised that the state remained internally self-governing, as a princely state. During World War II, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between Japanese invaders and British Indian forces. The Japanese were beaten back before they could enter Imphal, which was one of the turning points of the overall war in South Asia. The Battle of Imphal, known to the Manipuris as Japan Laan, are among the lesser-known battles of the Second World War. Yet the Allied Victory in this battle was a turning point against the Japanese in East Asia.

Post-colonial history After the war, the Maharaja took the advice of the British Cabinet Mission and the Chamber of Princes to introduce democratic reforms in the state. The Manipur State Constitution Act of 1947 was promulgated in July 1947 to give the state an elected legislative assembly and an appointed prime minister. Elections to the assembly were held only in the following year.

Following the decision to partition British India, all the princely states were advised to "accede" to one of the new dominions. The Maharaja acceded to India on 11 August 1947 and signed a standstill agreement to continue all the pre-existing arrangements it had with British India. Some Meitei people argue that the king was in no legal position to sign the instrument of accession at the time.

Over the next two years, the multitude of princely states of India were extensively reorganised as India moved towards becoming a constitutional republic. Proposals for reorganisation were also made for Manipur but discarded as being unsuitable. Eventually Manipur was turned into a centrally administered province (called a 'Part C' state, later renamed union territory) by asking the Maharaja to sign a merger agreement. He is believed to have signed it under duress, and without opportunity to consult the elected legislature..

As a centrally-administered province, Manipur was governed by a Chief Commissioner, as per the Constitution of India. An advisory council with nominated members was provided to advise the Chief Commissioner. In 1956, the status changed to a union territory, with a Lieutenant Governor advised by a territorial council with mostly elected members. In 1963, Manipur was provided a legislative assembly and a council of ministers headed by a chief minister. It was made a fully-fledged state in 1972 under the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.

Insurgency

The disaffection of the populace before 1972, led to armed insurgencies. The first armed opposition group, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964 demanding independence from India. Over time, more groups formed, each with a different goal, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur. The People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed in 1977, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in 1978, which were suspected to have received arms and training from China. In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings. The state government appealed to the central government in New Delhi for support in combating this violence.

Even before the Naga-dominated hill districts of Manipur participated in the Naga insurgency driven by the Naga National Council and, later, Natiional Socialist Council of Nagaland. In the late 1980s the Kuki-Zo people started their own insurgency demanding separation from the Manipur state.

From 1980 to 2004, the Indian government referred to Manipur as a disturbed area, where the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) would operate. The law allow the military to treat private and public spaces in the same manner, detain individuals for up to 24 hours with unlimited renewals, perform warrantless searches, and to shoot and kill individuals who break laws, carry weapons, or gather in groups larger than four. Legal immunity applies to the armed forces.McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2016. Borderland city in new India: Frontier to gateway (pp. 15, 17–19). Amsterdam University Press. Since 1980, the application of the AFSPA has been at the heart of concerns about human rights violations in the region, such as arbitrary killings, torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and forced disappearances. Its continued application has led to numerous protests, notably the longstanding hunger strike by Irom Sharmila Chanu.

In 2004, the government lifted the disturbed status after a violent attack on a local woman. The rape of a Manipuri woman, Thangjam Manorama Devi, by members of the Assam Rifles paramilitary led to wide protests including a nude protest by the Meira Paibi women's association.McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2016. Borderland City in New India: Frontier to Gateway, Amsterdam University Press, p. 18

18 June Uprising

On 18 June 2001, a massive protest broke out in Imphal Valley. The protest was triggered by the Government of India's decision to extend the ceasefire agreement with the NSCN-IM "without territorial limits", which was widely perceived as a threat to Manipur's territorial integrity. Demonstrators set fire to the Manipur Legislative Assembly and other government buildings in Imphal. Security forces opened fire to stop the crowds, killing 18 people.

2023 Manipur violence

On 3 May 2023, ethnic violence broke out between Meitei people and Kuki people which led to extensive violence and arson, resulting in the displacement of 60,000 people from their homes and hundreds more dead and hospitalised. According to data released by Manipur Police, as of September 15, 2023, 175 people were killed, 1,118 people were injured, and 33 people were missing. 96 bodies remained unclaimed. 5,172 cases of arson including destruction of 4,786 houses and 386 religious places, out of which there were 254 churches and 132 temples, were reported since May. Out of 5,668 arms lost, 1,329 arms, 15,050 ammunition and 400 bombs were recovered. Indian army troops were deployed to control the situation. International outrage resulted on 20 July 2023, from a viral video that two Kuki women had been paraded naked and allegedly gang-raped by a mob of Meitei men.

Geography

The state lies at a latitude of 23°83'N – 25°68'N and a longitude of 93°03'E – 94°78'E. The total area covered by the state is . The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately , surrounded by blue mountains, at an elevation of above sea level. The slope of the valley is from north to south. The mountain ranges create a moderate climate, preventing the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley and barring cyclonic storms.