There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history. A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head. An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries".
In Africa, states emerged in a process covering many generations and centuries. Most states were created through conquest or the borrowing and assimilation of ideas and institutions, while some developed through internal, largely isolated development. Economic development "gave rise to a perceived need for centralized institutions and 'territorial' leadership that transcended older bonds of kinship and community". The politicoreligious struggle between the people and the king sometimes saw the people victorious and the establishment of sacred kings with little political power (termed "adverse sacralisation"), contrasted with divine kings equated to gods. Kings and queens used both "instrumental power", the employment of direct influence to achieve a desired outcome, and "creative power", the use of ritual and mythology.
Despite this, popular understanding often claims that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism, or racism, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the expansive West Sudanic empires, to the sacral Congolese empires akin to confederations or commonwealths, and the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes.
The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, European powers rapidly invaded, conquered, and colonised Africa. While most states were conquered and dissolved, some kings and elites negotiated the terms of colonial rule, and traditional power structures were incorporated into the colonial regimes as a form of indirect rule.
In the mid-late 20th century decolonisation saw Africans inherit the former colonies, and many traditional kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of traditional monarchs throughout Africa varies greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region. On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad, or their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962, and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM).
There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa; two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).
There have been a number of autocratic presidents in Africa who have been characterised as "disguised monarchs" due to the absence of term limits, as well as those who have invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes, such as the Bongos of Gabon, Gnassingbés of Togo, or Aptidon and Guelleh of Djibouti, attracting the terms monarchical republic and presidential monarchism. These haven't been included.
Criteria for inclusion Only polities that were once independent and described as kingdoms or empires by reliable sources are included. The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.
Oral traditions rarely incorporate chronological devices, and dates in this list are often estimates based on lists of rulers. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.
Comparison between kingdoms
Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power: Despotic Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century. Regal Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family. Incorporative Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi. Aristocratic Kingdoms: The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century. Federations: Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares, such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations")
North Africa
A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in North Africa that we have record of:
4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE Protodynastic period in Egypt: (preceded by various cultures in which it is unclear if the institution of kingship existed) (preceded by nomes and nomarchs) Lower Egypt Kingdom (3500–3100 BCE) Upper Egypt Kingdom (3400–3150 BCE) Early Dynastic Egypt (3150–2686 BCE) Old Kingdom of Egypt (2686–2181 BCE) Kingdom of Kerma (2500–1500 BCE) First Intermediate Period in Egypt: (2181–2055 BCE) Heracleopolis Thebes Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2055–1650 BCE) Second Intermediate Period in Egypt (1700–1550 BCE) 14th dynasty at Xois (1700–1650 BCE) 15th dynasty and the Hyksos (1650–1550 BCE) Abydos dynasty (1640–1620 BCE) 16th dynasty (1650–1580 BCE) 17th dynasty (1571–1540 BCE) New Kingdom of Egypt (1550–1077 BCE) Third Intermediate Period in Egypt: (1077–664 BCE) 21st dynasty (1077–943 BCE) 22nd dynasty (943–716 BCE) 23rd dynasty (837–728 BCE) 24th dynasty (732–720 BCE) Kingdom of Kush (1070 BCE – 350 CE) and the 25th dynasty of Egypt/Kushite Empire (754–656 BCE) Ancient Carthage (814–146 BCE) Late Dynastic Egypt (664–525 BCE, 404–343 BCE) Battiadae Kingdom (631–440 BCE) (List of kings of Cyrene) Garamantes Kingdom (pre 5th century BCE – 7th century CE) Kingdom of Blemmyes (600 BCE – 3rd century CE) Ptolemaic Kingdom (305–30 BCE) Kingdom of Numidia (202–46 BCE) (preceded by Massylii Confederation) Kingdom of Mauretania (202 BCE – 25 BCE/44 CE) Kingdom of Nobatia (350–650 CE) (absorbed into Makuria) Kingdom of Ouarsenis (430–735 CE) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans (435–534 CE) Kingdom of the Moors and Romans (477–599 CE) Kingdom of the Aurès (484–703 CE) (Kahina) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Kingdom of Makuria (5th century–1518 CE) (Dongola as an interchangeable name prior to 1365? "" and Qalidurut, in which there are contrasting titles for the same king) (its rump state after the 1365 civil war is often conflated as Dotawo and it is unknown whether the other polity in the civil war continued to hold Dongola prior to Funj conquest) Kingdom of Hodna (5th century–7th century CE) (Hodna) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Kingdom of Capsus (5th century–6th/7th century CE) (Gafsa) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Ucutumani Kingdom (??) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Nemencha Kingdom (5th century–7th century CE) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Lagautan/Tripolis/Cabaon Kingdom (5th century–7th century CE) (Cabaon) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Kingdom of the Dorsale (510–7th century CE) (Romano-Berber kingdoms) Kingdom of Altava (578–708 CE) (Kusaila of Awraba) (Roman–Berber kingdoms) Principality of Tingitana (6th century–7th century CE) (Mauretania Tingitana) Kingdom of Alodia/Alwa (6th century–1504 CE)
7th century – 12th century CE Dar Sila 'Wandering Sultanate' (619–? CE) Emirate of Nekor (710–1019 CE) Barghawata/Tamasna Kingdom (744–1058 CE) (Salih ibn Tarif) al–Rahman's Ifriqiya (745–755 CE) Ifranid Emirate of Tlemcen (757–790 CE) (Algeria) Emirate of Sijilmassa (759–976 CE) Rustamid Imamate of Tahert (767–909 CE) (Algeria) (Tahert) Idrisid dynasty (789–974 CE) (Morocco) Imamate of Nafusa (8th century–911 CE) Aghlabid dynasty (800–909 CE) (Tunisia) Sulaymanid dynasty (814–922 CE) (Algeria) Tulunid dynasty (868–905 CE) (Egypt) Fatimid Caliphate (910–1171 CE) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation) Banu Khattab dynasty (918–1172/1177 CE) (Zawila) (Libya) Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969 CE) (Egypt) (Abu al–Misk Kafur) Banu Kanz dynasty (948–1365 CE) (Egypt/Sudan) Maghrawa dynasty (988–1069 CE) (Morocco) Banu Khazrun dynasty (1001–1146 CE) (Libya) M'zab (1012–16th century/1882 CE) Hammadid dynasty (1014–1152 CE) (Algeria) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation) Almoravid dynasty (1040–1147 CE) (Morocco and Western Sahara) (born from Aznag Confederation) Zirid dynasty (1048–1148 CE) (Algeria) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation) Khurasanid dynasty (1059–1128 CE, 1148–1158 CE) (Tunisia) Banu Ghaniya dynasty (1180–1212 CE) (Tunisia) Almohad dynasty (1121–1269 CE) (Morocco) (born from Masmuda Confederation) (Tinmel) Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1254 CE) (Egypt) Guanches Guanartematos: (pre–15th century CE) (Gran Canaria) Telde Gáldar Daju kingdom (12th century–15th century CE) preceded by Tora (overthrown by Tunjur)
13th century – 18th century CE Emirate of Banu Talis (1228–1551 CE) Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574 CE) (Tunisia) (born from Masmuda Confederation) Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen (1235–1556 CE) (Algeria) (born from Zenata Confederation) Marinid dynasty (1248–1465 CE) (Morocco) (born from Zenata Confederation) Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517 CE) Bahri dynasty (1250–1382 CE) Burji dynasty (1382–1517 CE) Banu Makki dynasty (1282–1394 CE) (Tunisia) Hafsid Emirate of Béjaïa/Bougie (1285–1510 CE) Kingdom of al–Abwab (13th century–15th/16th century CE) Hafsid Emirate of Qusantina/Constantine (CE 13th/14th century–1528) (Constantine) Banu Thabit dynasty (1324–1401 CE) (Libya) Zab Emirate (mid 14th century–1402 CE) Sultanate of Tuggurt (1414–1854/1871 CE) (vassal of Algiers (CE 1552–1812/1827)) (List of rulers of Tuggurt) Wattasid dynasty (1470–1554 CE) (Morocco) (born from Zenata Confederation) Tunjur kingdom (15th century–mid 17th century CE) (overthrown by Darfur) Abdallabi Kingdom (15th century–1504/1821 CE) Kingdom of Fazughli (1500–1685 CE) Sultanate of Sennar/Funj (1504–1821 CE) Saadi Principality of Sus and Tagmadert (1509–1554 CE) (Sous) (at times ruled separately from Saadi Sultanate) Kingdom of Beni Abbas (1510–1872 CE) Kingdom of Kuku (1515–1638 CE) Regency of Algiers (1516/1659–1830 CE) (Odjak of Algiers Revolution) Fezzan Sultanate (1556–1804/1912 CE) Saadi dynasty (1554–1659 CE) (Morocco) Regency of Tunis (1574/1591/1613–1705 CE) (Muradid dynasty) succeeded by Beylik of Tunis (1705–1881 CE) (Husainid dynasty)