In Jainism, ahiṃsā (, alternatively spelled 'ahinsā', Sanskrit: अहिंसा IAST: , Pāli: ) is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term ahiṃsā means nonviolence, non-injury, and the absence of desire to harm any life forms. Veganism, vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. There are five specific transgressions of ahimsa in Jain scriptures – binding of animals, beating, mutilating limbs, overloading, and withholding food and drink. Any other interpretation is subject to individual choices and not authorized by scriptures.
The Jain concept of ahimsa is very different from the concept of nonviolence found in other philosophies. Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others. But according to the Jain philosophy, violence refers primarily to injuring one's own self – behaviour which inhibits the soul's own ability to attain moksha (liberation from the cycle of births and deaths). At the same time it also implies violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms one's own soul. Furthermore, the Jains extend the concept of ahimsa not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms and all beings having life or life potential. All life is sacred and everything has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential. Living beings need not fear those who have taken the vow of ahimsa. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known as abhayadānam, is the supreme charity that a person can make. "Giving protection always to living beings who are in fear of death is known as abhayadana"
Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of physical violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence. "Even an intention of killing is the cause of the bondage of Karma, whether you actually kill or not; from the real point of view, this is the nature of the bondage of Karma." Jains have strongly advocated veganism and nonviolence throughout the ages.
The Metaphysical Foundation: Karma and Spiritual Survival Jain texts expound that there are ten life essentials or life-principles; these are: the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Living beings are classified on the basis of their sensory organs () and life essentials () they possess. According to Jain texts: The one-sensed lives possess four essentials – sense organ of touch, strength of body or energy, respiration, and life-duration. The two-sensed beings have six, namely the sense of taste and the organ of speech in addition to the former four. The three-sensed beings have seven with the addition of the sense of smell. The four-sensed beings have eight with the addition of the sense of sight. The five-sensed beings without mind have nine life-principles with the addition of the sense of hearing. Those endowed with mind are said to have ten vitalities with the addition of the mind. According to Tattvarthasutra, one of the most important Jainism scriptures, "the severance of vitalities out of passion is injury". Therefore, the higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has, the more is its capacity to suffer and feel pain. Hence according to Jainism, violence to higher-sensed beings like man, cow, tiger and those who have five senses and the capacity to think and feel pain attracts more karma than violence to lesser-sensed beings like insects, or single-sensed beings like microbes and plants.
Out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest (the one-sensed, such as vegetables, herbs, cereals, etc., which are endowed with only the sense of touch). But, the ascetic is required to avoid even injuring the one-sensed form of life to the best of his ability. Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher-sensed beings and as far as possible minimise violence to lower-sensed and single-sensed beings. Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,Nisithabhasya (in Nisithasutra) 289; Jinadatta Suri: Upadesharasayana 26; Dundas pp. 162–163 and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.Jindal pp. 89–90; Laidlaw pp. 154–155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism, in: Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism, ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52–60 Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence, there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.Harisena, Brhatkathakosa 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259.
The Vow of Ahimsa: Ascetic and Lay Practice
In Jainism, both ascetics and householders (śrāvaka) have to follow five major vows (). Ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly and therefore observe complete abstinence.
1. Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow. The votary must not to hurt any living being by actions, words or thoughts. The Jain text Puruşārthasiddhyupāya deals with the conduct required of the householder (śrāvaka) and therefore discusses the fundamental vow of Ahimsa in detail. There are two types of Ahimsa – Bhaav Ahimsa and Karm Ahimsa. Bhaav Ahimsa is thinking to not hurt someone in the thoughts and intentions whereas Karm Ahimsa is not hurting someone through some actions or words. The text expounds that "all these subdivisions (injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment) are hiṃsā as indulgence in these sullies the pure nature of the soul. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned separately only to make the disciple understand through illustrations."
2. Satya (Truth) – The underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore, it is said to cause hiṃsā (injury). According to Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi, translates S.A. Jain, "that which causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable, whether it refers to actual facts or not is immaterial".
3. Asteya (Non-thieving) – According to Puruşārthasiddhyupāya:
4. Brahmacharya – It means chastity for householders and celibacy in action, words & thoughts for ascetics.
5. Aparigraha (Non-possession) – According to Jain texts, attachment to possessions (parigraha) is of two kinds: attachment to internal possessions (ābhyantara parigraha), and attachment to external possessions (bāhya parigraha). The fourteen internal possessions are: Wrong belief, the three sex-passions (male sex-passion, female sex-passion, and neuter sex-passion), also the six defects (laughter, liking, disliking, sorrow, fear, and disgust), and four passions (anger, pride, deceitfulness, and greed). According to Jain texts, "internal possessions are proved to be hiṃsā as these are just another name for himsā". External possessions are divided into two sub-classes, the non-living, and the living. "External possessions, due to the passion of attachment in them, result into himsā."
Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa These five vows are called (major vows) when observed by an ascetic. is the first and foremost of all vows. Jain monks and nuns must rank among the most "nonviolent" people in the world. A Jain ascetic is expected to uphold the vow of to the highest standard, even at the cost of their own life. The other four major vows – truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possession and celibacy – are in fact extension of the first vow of complete nonviolence.
The ascetic practices of total renunciation of worldly affairs and possessions, refusal to stay in a single place for a long time, continuous practice of austerities like fasting etc. are geared towards observance of . The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct, where they must eat, sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings. Jain ascetics sweep the ground before them to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life. They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves. Ascetics of the Śvētāmbara tradition wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects. The observation of three or the controls of mind, speech and body and five samiti are designed to help the monks in observing the vow of Ahimsa faultlessly. A monk is required to cultivate the habit of carefulness (samti), in respect of the following five particulars:
walking, so as not to injure any living being; speech, so as not to cause pain to any one by offensive, disagreeable language, or by a careless use of words having a tendency to incite others to violent deeds; eating, so as not to cause injury to any living being; handling things – the water gourd, books and the feather whisk, with which there is a great danger of injury to small insects; and evacuation and disposal of faeces, urine, and the like.
The entire day of a Jain monk is spent in ensuring that he observes his vow of ahimsa through mind, body and speech faultlessly. This seemingly extreme behaviour of the monks comes from a sense that every action, no matter however subtle, has a karmic effect which can bind soul and inhibit liberation, especially those that result in hiṃsā (injury).
Householders adherence to the vow A Jain layman, on account of his household and occupational compulsions, is unable to adhere to the five major vows of ascetic. Hence he observes aṇuvrata or minor vows which although are similar to the major vows of the ascetics are observed with a lesser severity. It is difficult to avoid some violence by a lay person to single-sensed immobile beings in the process of occupation, cooking, self-defense etc. That is why he vows not to kill without a necessary purpose and determined intention, a moving sentient being, when it is innocent. Tying up, injuring, mutilating, burdening with heavy load and depriving from food and drinks any animal or human being, with one's mind polluted by anger and other passions are the five or transgressions of the vow of ahimsa. However, it is to be understood that ultimately, there is limited spiritual progress and no emancipation unless the major vows are adhered to.
Jainism is perhaps the only religion in the world that requires all its adherents to follow a strict vegetarian diet. Vegetarian food that also involves more harm to the living beings such as roots, bulbs, multi seeded vegetables etc. are avoided by strict Jains. The importance of ahimsa manifests in many other ways in the daily life of Jains. For a layperson it means participating in business that results in least amount of violence to living beings. No furs, plumes or silk are worn. Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals. Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable, since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night. The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed; even with this precaution, liquids are always strained before use. Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury, and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking, commerce and other mercantile trades.
Transgressions Jain texts list down five transgressions of the vow of ahimsa:
Tying up animals too tightly Beating them mercilessly Cutting their limbs Overloading them Neglecting to feed them properly
A king who fights in defending his empire, however, does not violate the vow of ahimsa, for his motive is to protect his subjects. The same is the case with the judge who punishes to maintain law and order.
Philosophical Nuance and Analysis
Important constituents