Kazakhs in China (; ) form the largest community of Kazakhs outside Kazakhstan. They are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There is one Kazakh autonomous prefectureIli in Xinjiangand three Kazakh autonomous countiesAksay in Gansu, and Barkol and Mori in Xinjiang.
History
Background
In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan granted the vast Kipchak steppe west of the Irtysh River to his eldest son Jochi, forming the “Jochi Ulus,” i.e., the Jochid Khanate. Later, Jochi died before Genghis Khan, and Jochi’s second son Batu Khan succeeded him. After the victory of the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1242, he established his capital at Sarai on the lower reaches of the Volga River along the northern shore of the Caspian Sea, formally founding the state, which became known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Golden Horde. Batu granted a region roughly corresponding to modern Kazakhstan to his elder brother Orda Khan, forming the White Horde; and granted a region north of the White Horde to his younger brother Shiban, forming the Blue Horde.
The areas east of the Golden Horde, including both sides of the Tian Shan and the Transoxiana region to the south, belonged to the Chagatai Khanate, ruled by Genghis Khan’s second son Chagatai Khan and his descendants. In the mid-14th century, the Chagatai Khanate split, after which the Timurid Empire rose and at one time dominated Central Asia. In the first half of the 15th century, the Timurid Empire declined, and nomadic tribes from the northern Kipchak steppe known as the Uzbeks took the opportunity to move south and occupy the oasis regions of Transoxiana. In the mid-15th century, a descendant of Shiban, Abu'l-Khayr Khan, became the leader of the Uzbeks; his grandfather was Ibrahim, a khan of the Blue Horde. Meanwhile, two grandsons of the White Horde khan Urus Khan—Kerei and Janibek Khan—fell out with Abu'l-Khayr, led their followers to independence, occupied the steppe north of the Syr Darya River, and in August 1465 established the Kazakh Khanate.
Even before the founding of the Kazakh Khanate, the Kazakhs had established direct contact with the Western Regions. In 1456, Kerei and Janibek sought refuge with the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, which then ruled the Western Regions. Khan Esen Buqa granted them the western part of the Semirechye region along his western frontier. The establishment of this territory laid the initial foundation for the Kazakh Khanate. From then until the 16th century, the two states sometimes cooperated against enemies and intermarried, but also fought each other. In the late 16th century, a group of Oirats migrated from the western Mongolian steppe across the Altai Mountains into the Western Regions, and later entered the Kazakh Steppe. In 1640, the Dzungar tribe unified the Oirat Mongols and established the Dzungar Khanate; in 1680, the Dzungars defeated the Yarkent Khanate in southern Xinjiang and unified the regions north and south of the Tian Shan. In early conflicts, the Kazakhs under Tauke Khan achieved some victories, but overall were at a disadvantage. After Tauke Khan’s death, the Kazakh Khanate split into three “zhuzes” (hordes): the Great, Middle, and Little. From 1723 to 1728, Dzungar forces penetrated deep into the Kazakh steppe and eventually controlled the Great Zhuz. Meanwhile, the Tsarist Russia also invaded the Kazakh Khanate from the west and north. By the mid-18th century, the Little Zhuz was annexed by Tsarist Russia, the Great Zhuz became subordinate to the Dzungar Khanate, and the Middle Zhuz was under dual control by both powers.
In 1745, the Dzungar khan Galdan Tseren died of illness, and his son Tsewang Dorji Namjal succeeded him. In 1749, the young and reckless Namjal, who neglected state affairs, imprisoned his sister Olan Bayar, who had been managing governance on his behalf. Her husband Sayn Bolek supported Darja, the illegitimate eldest son of Galdan Tseren, and sent troops to Ili to imprison Namjal. Because Darja’s mother was of low status, some high-born nobles opposed his succession and plotted to enthrone the younger son of Galdan Tseren, Tsewang Dash, but the plot was exposed before it could be carried out. Tsewang Dash was executed, the conspirator Dashi Dawa was killed, and Dawachi and Amursana fled to the Kazakh Khanate, seeking refuge with Ablai of the Middle Zhuz. In 1753, Amursana and Dawachi launched a surprise attack on Ili, killed Darja, and Dawachi succeeded as Khong Tayiji. Soon afterward, Amursana and Dawachi fell out; the disadvantaged Amursana sought help from Ablai. Dawachi was defeated and abandoned the capital Ili, retreating to Bortala. Kazakh forces carried out widespread looting and destruction in Ili, burning the Gurzha Temple and Hainuk Temple. In 1754, Dawachi counterattacked, and Amursana was defeated and fled to the Qing. In July 1755, the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing launched a western campaign, and Qing forces swiftly defeated Dawachi and pacified Ili. In August 1755, Amursana rebelled against the Qing and declared independence. In March 1756, Qing forces again captured Ili, and Amursana fled to the Middle Zhuz. In 1757, Amursana fell out with Ablai, who then submitted to the Qing and became known as the “Left Kazakhs.” In 1758, during the suppression of Amursana’s rebellion, Qing forces advanced into the territory of the Great Zhuz; the Great Zhuz, already subordinate to the Dzungar Khanate, surrendered and became a Qing vassal, known as the “Right Kazakhs.”
Regarding how to govern the Kazakh tribes, the Qing court initially believed that, since they had submitted, direct administration should be implemented. However, the Qianlong Emperor considered the Kazakhs too distant from the interior and decided to adopt a loose Jimi system of indirect rule. Thus, after submission, the Kazakhs retained their original system. At Ablai Khan’s request, the Qing court granted titles to various tribes and opened trade at Ulungur. However, regarding Ablai’s request that the Qing allow Kazakhs to pasture in former Dzungar lands near Tarbagatai, the Qing government politely declined in an imperial edict.
Entry into Inner Territory
In the final years of the Dzungar Khanate, widespread epidemics, continuous civil wars, and heavy population losses significantly reduced the Dzungar population. At the same time, many tribes migrated to Russia, Kazakhstan, and other regions of China.
With the fall of the Dzungar Khanate in the mid-18th century, the Manchus of the Qing Dynasty massacred the native Dzungars of Dzungaria in the Dzungar genocide. During the Qing campaign to pacify the Dzungars, many rebellious or suspected rebellious tribes were exterminated by Qing forces, while even non-rebellious groups were often incorporated into the Eight Banners or relocated to northern Mongolia. After the campaign, the Dzungar population had fallen to roughly one-tenth of its peak, leaving vast areas of former pastureland empty. Among the peoples who migrated into depopulated Dzungaria were the Kazakhs from the Kazakh Khanates, although this migration was small and disrupted by the later Sino–Kazakh Wars that also saw Kazakhs massacred.
After the Qing conquest of Xinjiang, the Kazakhs submitted to Qing rule and requested permission to graze in the former Dzungar pastures in Ili and Tarbagatai. The Qing government rejected this request. In 1760, the Qing court ordered that all intruders crossing into the region be expelled. However, cross-border grazing increased steadily, with Kazakh groups frequently entering Qing territory. The Qing government was forced to strengthen border controls and expel unauthorized crossers.
In 1762, the Qing government established the office of the Ili General to govern military and civil affairs in Xinjiang. His jurisdiction included a vast area east and south of Lake Balkhash, bringing Kazakh groups between Ili, Tarbagatai, Altai, and Balkhash under Qing rule.
From 1766 onward, due to sparse population in frontier regions, the Qing adopted an “open admission and resettlement” policy for voluntarily submitting Kazakhs. They were assigned grazing lands and taxed at a rate of one percent. As a result, Kazakh migration into Qing territory increased, and regions such as Ili, Tarbagatai, and Zaisan became major Kazakh pastoral areas.
However, after the return of more than 70,000 Torghut Mongols in 1771 and the continued settlement of Kazakhs, available pastureland became increasingly limited. In 1776, the Qing government restricted admission, allowing only Kazakhs with relatives inside the border to settle. Despite this, illegal crossings continued, especially during harsh winters, sometimes leading to clashes with border troops.
In 1790, Kazakh leader Kukudai of the Abak Kerei tribe visited Beijing and was granted the title of Prince of the First Rank. In 1794, the Qing allowed Kazakhs to graze in designated “interior-border buffer zones” after paying taxes. Following this legalization, Kazakh migration increased significantly, spreading from Altai into Tarbagatai, Bogda, Barkol, and Manas.
By the early 19th century, these buffer zones had effectively become permanent Kazakh grazing territories within Qing-controlled Xinjiang.
In 1864, the Qing government signed the Treaty of Chuguchak with the Russian Empire, losing large territories east and south of Lake Balkhash. Kazakhs in these newly ceded areas were placed under Russian rule. During the chaos of the Dungan Revolt, more than 100,000 Russian Kazakhs crossed into Qing territory.
Among them, descendants of Kukudai’s lineage migrated south to the Saur Mountains. In 1864, local uprisings in Xinjiang further destabilized the region, and in 1871 Russian forces occupied Ili under the pretext of Kazakh migration movements.
In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire pushed Kazakh populations into neighboring regions. Russian settlers on traditional Kazakh lands displaced many people across the border into China, contributing to an increase in the Kazakh population there.
After the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang in 1878, Kazakhs were resettled depending on whether they wished to remain under Russian or Qing rule. Those choosing Russia were allowed to leave, while others were resettled within Qing territory.
In 1884, Xinjiang was formally established as a province. The Ili General continued to oversee frontier military affairs, while Altai was later separated into a new administrative office. The Qing also introduced a hierarchical tribal governance system among Kazakhs, including ranks such as princes, beis, taiji, and others, while implementing fixed taxation.
By the late Qing period, increasing taxation and administrative control led many Kazakhs in Altai to migrate toward northern Xinjiang, Barkol, Mulei, Urumqi, and Manas, with some moving further into Qinghai. This migration pattern largely shaped the modern distribution of Kazakh populations in China.
Republican period