A victory title is an honorific title adopted by a successful military commander to commemorate his defeat of an enemy nation. The practice is first known in Ancient Rome and is still most commonly associated with the Romans, but it was also adopted as a practice by many later empires, especially the French, British and Russian Empires.
Roman victory titles
Victory titles were suffixed to the commander's name and were usually the name of the enemy defeated by the commander. Some victory titles became hereditary cognomina, while others were personal agnomina and not carried on by later family members. Names like Africanus ("the African"), Numidicus ("the Numidian"), Isauricus ("the Isaurian"), Creticus ("the Cretan"), Gothicus ("the Goth"), Germanicus ("the German") and Parthicus ("the Parthian") expressed the triumphal subjugation of these peoples or their territories, or commemorated the locations of general's successful campaigns, equivalent to modern titles like Lawrence of Arabia, and were not indicators of origin.
The practice of awarding victory titles was established in the Roman Republic. The most famous grantee of a Republican victory title was Publius Cornelius Scipio, who for his great victories in the Second Punic War, specifically the Battle of Zama was awarded by the Roman Senate the title "Africanus" and is thus known to history as "Scipio Africanus" (his adopted grandson Scipio Aemilianus Africanus was awarded the same title after the Third Punic War and is known as "Scipio Africanus the Younger"). Other notable holders of such victory titles include Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, who was replaced by Gaius Marius as command-in-chief of the Jugurthine War; Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus, who commanded Roman anti-pirate operations in the eastern Mediterranean (and was father of Julius Caesar's colleague in his second consulate); Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (in 48 BC); while Marcus Antonius Creticus, another anti-piracy commander (and father of Caesar's magister equitum, Mark Antony) actually lost in Crete and was called Creticus mockingly, as it also meant "made of chalk". Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis received his title posthumously from those glorifying his suicide, rather than defeat, at Utica.
The practice continued in the Roman Empire, although it was subsequently amended by some Roman Emperors who desired to emphasise the totality of their victories by adding Maximus ("the Greatest") to the victory title (e.g., Parthicus Maximus, "the Greatest Parthian"). This taste grew to be rather vulgar by modern standards, with increasingly grandiose accumulations of partially fictitious victory titles.
In a broader sense, the term victory title is sometimes used to describe the repeatable awarding of the invariable style of Imperator (Greek equivalent Autokrator; see those articles), which is the highest military qualification (as modern states have awarded a non-operational highest rank, sometimes instituted for a particular general), but even when it marks the recipient out for one or more memorable victories (and the other use, as a permanent military command for the ruler, became in fact the more significant one), it does not actually specify one.
Medieval victory titles After the fall of Western Rome, the practice continued in modified form. Charlemagne, the first Carolingian emperor of the Franks, styled himself Dominator Saxonorum ("Dominator of the Saxons") after subduing the largest pagan people of the Empire, transforming the duchy into a vassal of the Holy Roman Empire. Byzantine Emperor Basil II (r. 960–1025) — "the Bulgar-slayer" Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan (r. 1196–1207) — "the Roman-slayer" King Richard I of England (r. 1189–1199) — "the Lionheart" King Edward I of England (r. 1272–1307) — "Hammer of the Scots" Ruler of Epirus Thomas Preljubović (r. 1367–1384) — "the Albanian-slayer" Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod was called Alexander Nevsky for his victory in the Battle of Neva. Prince Dmitry of Moscow was styled Dmitry Donskoy for his victory over Mamai Khan at Kulikovo on the Don.
Modern victory titles The term "victory-title" occurs in English from as early as 1938.
Modern monarchs awarded titles in commemoration of major military victories, but in the guise of a feudal aristocratic title, often hereditary, but only in appearance: an actual fief was not required, indeed they often were granted in chief of a battlefield where the awarding monarch simply had no constitutional authority to grant anything validly under local law.
This new form was even more specific than the Roman practice. Instead of naming the enemy — which could well need to be repeated — it linked the name of a battle, which was almost always unique. A further level of protection was available by naming a nearby place, such as 'Austerlitz' which Napoleon declared sounded better than the alternative.
Russian Empire In the Russian Empire, many victory titles originated in the period between the accession of Catherine the Great (1762) and the death of Nicholas I of Russia (1855). But as early as 1707, after Alexander Menshikov occupied Swedish Ingria (Izhora) during the Great Northern War, Peter I of Russia officially designated him Duke of Ingria (). Other Russian victory titles (sometimes referencing whole campaigns rather than specific battles) include:
1775 — Chesmensky ("Chesmean") for Count Aleksey Orlov for his victory in the naval Battle of Chesma 1775 — Zadunaisky ("Transdanubian") for Count Pyotr Rumyantsev for his crossing the Danube during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) 1775 — Krymsky ("Crimean") for Prince Vasily Mikhailovich Dolgorukov for his victories in the Crimea during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) 1783 — His Serene Highness Prince Tavrichesky for Grigori Potemkin for his annexation of the Crimea and New Russia (the ancient Greeks called this area Taurida; see also Tauride Palace) 1789 — Rymniksky for Alexander Suvorov for his victory in the Battle of Rymnik (Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792) 1799 — Prince Italiysky ("Italian") for Suvorov, for the Italian Campaign of 1799 after the Battle of Trebbia 1813 — His Serene Highness Prince Smolensky for Mikhail Kutuzov for his 1812 defeat of Napoleon at Krasnoi near Smolensk during Napoleon's invasion of Russia 1827 — Count Erivansky for Ivan Paskevich for his capture of Erivan (Yerevan) in Armenia during the Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828 1829 — Zabalkansky ("Transbalkan") for Count Ivan Dibich for having crossed the Balkan Mountains during the Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829 1831 — His Serene Highness Prince Varshavsky ("Varsovian") for Paskevich for having taken Warsaw during the Polish November Uprising of 1830–1831 1855 — Karssky for Count Nicholas Muravyov for his capture of Kars after the Siege of Kars
Furthermore, similar titles were awarded for comparable non-military services to the empire, e.g. in 1858 — Amursky for another Nicholas Muravyov, who had negotiated a new border between Russian and China along the Amur River under the Treaty of Aigun.
General Wrangel awarded the last victory-title in Russia (Krymsky – "Crimean") unofficially after the abolition of the monarchy: to the White Lieutenant-General Yakov Aleksandrovich Slashchov in August 1920 for his defence of the Crimea in 1919–1920.
France
First Empire
Napoleon I, the founder of the Bonaparte dynasty and only head of the First French Empire, owed his success — both his personal rise and the growth of his empire — above all to his military excellence, and he bestowed elaborate honours on his generals, especially those raised to the supreme army rank of Marshal of the Empire.
The bestowing of a victory title (), commemorating a specific victory, was an ideal form of honour, and many incumbents were victorious marshals (or posthumously, in chief of the widow).
The highest of these titles referenced four nominal principalities, in most cases awarded as a "promotion" to holders of ducal victory titles: Marshal Davout, Prince d'Eckmühl – 1809 (extinct 1853) – also duc d'Auerstaedt (see below) Marshal Masséna, Prince d'Essling – 1810 – also duc de Rivoli Marshal Ney, Prince de la Moskowa – 1813 (extinct 1969) – also duc d'Elchingen – Bataille de la Moskowa is the French name for the Battle of Borodino of 1812 Marshal Berthier, Prince de Wagram – 1809 (extinct 1918) – also duc de Valengin, and Prince de Neuchâtel (a sovereign title granted in 1806), neither of which were victory titles.
Next in rank came ten dukedoms: Marshal Ney, duc d'Elchingen – 1808 (extinct 1969) – also Prince de la Moskowa Marshal Lefebvre, duc de Dantzig – 28 May 1807 (extinct 1820) – Danzig was then still a city republic, which became part of Prussia after Napoleon's defeat, and subsequently Gdańsk in Poland General Junot, duc d'Abrantès – 1808 (extinct 1859 but extended in female line in 1869, again extinct 1985) Marshal Davout, duc d'Auerstaedt – 1808 (extinct 1853, extended to collaterals) – also prince d'Eckmühl Marshal Augereau, duc de Castiglione – 1808 (extinct 1915) Marshal Lannes, duc de Montebello – 1808 Marshal Marmont, duc de Raguse – 1808 (extinct 1852) – present-day Dubrovnik, on the Croatian coast; conquered as part of Napoleon's own Italian kingdom, soon to become part of France's imperial exclave the Illyrian provinces (1809–1816) Marshal Masséna, duc de Rivoli – 1808 – also Prince d'Essling Marshal Kellermann, duc de Valmy – 1808 (extinct 1868) Marshal Suchet, duc d'Albufera – 1813
Counts: Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau – 1810
July Monarchy Thomas Robert Bugeaud, duc d'Isly – 1844 (from the First Franco-Moroccan War)
Second Empire In the interest of insinuating a continuation of his uncle's empire, to prove legitimacy during his early reign, Napoleon III reestablished many titles that Napoleon I had issued during his own reign. During his long rule, Napoleon III also created new titles rewarding his generals for victory. Examples include: Marshal Pélissier, duc de Malakoff – 1856 (from the Crimean War, extinct 1864) Marshal MacMahon, duc de Magenta – 1859 (from the Campaign of Italy; a newly invented dye took its name for the same battle) Charles Cousin-Montauban, comte de Palikao – 1862 (from the Second Opium War)
British Empire Many victory titles have been created in the peerages of England, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Examples include: Godert de Ginkell, victor at the Battle of Aughrim, was created Baron of Aughrim as a subsidiary title of the Earldom of Athlone in 1692. Admiral Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford, victor of the Battle of Barfleur, was created Viscount Barfleur as a subsidiary title of the Earldom of Orford in 1697. James Stanhope, who captured Mahón during the War of the Spanish Succession, was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon in 1717. Sir George Augustus Eliott, victor of the Great Siege of Gibraltar, was created Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar in 1787. Admiral Adam Duncan, victor of the Battle of Camperdown, was created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown in 1797. (His son was later created Earl of Camperdown.) Admiral Sir John Jervis, victor of the Battle of Cape St Vincent, was created Earl of St Vincent in 1797, and was further created Viscount St Vincent in 1801. Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the 1st Duke of Wellington), victor of the Battle of Douro, was in 1809 created Baron Douro as the subsidiary title granted to him with the Viscountcy of Wellington (see below). He was later, in 1814, created Marquess Douro as the subsidiary title granted to him with the Dukedom of Wellington. General Sir Robert Napier, who commanded the Abyssinian Expedition of 1868 and captured the fortress of Magdàla, was created Baron Napier of Magdala in 1868.