The Chenghua Emperor (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), personal name Zhu Jianshen, changed to Zhu Jianru in 1457, was the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1464 to 1487. He succeeded his father, Emperor Yingzong.
Zhu Jianshen was born during his father's first reign. When he was only two years old, Mongol forces captured his father during the Battle of Tumu Fortress, and his uncle ascended the throne as the Jingtai Emperor. During this time, Zhu Jianshen was appointed heir to the throne, but his uncle later removed him from the position. He was not reinstated as heir until 1457, when Emperor Yingzong overthrew the ailing Jingtai Emperor in a coup and reascended the throne.
The Chenghua Emperor began his reign at the age of sixteen. During the initial years of his reign, he implemented a new policy that included tax cuts and a focus on strengthening the state's power, but as time passed, the positive impact of these changes diminished. In the later years of his rule, the Forbidden City was dominated by court eunuchs, particularly the notorious Wang Zhi and Liang Fang. The Emperor's preference for favorites over promoting capable individuals gradually eroded the positive aspects of his rule. This resulted in widespread corruption and the enrichment of his supporters at the expense of the state treasury. Peasant uprisings erupted throughout the country and were brutally suppressed. The Emperor ruled with increasing autocracy, bolstering the secret police to monitor the sentiments of the people. Wan Zhen'er, a palace lady much older than the Chenghua Emperor, held significant sway over him and eventually became his favorite concubine. This was especially true after she gave birth to a son in 1466, although the child died shortly after. Lady Wan used her loyal eunuchs to force other women to have abortions if they became pregnant with the Emperor's child, and she did not hesitate to resort to poisoning mothers and their children. It was not until 1475 that the Emperor discovered the existence of his five-year-old son, Zhu Youcheng, who had been kept hidden until then. Zhu Youcheng later succeeded him as the Hongzhi Emperor.
The Chenghua Emperor was known for his military prowess and placed great emphasis on the strength of his army. During the 1470s, the reorganized Ming troops achieved notable triumphs in their battles against the Mongols, marking the first major victories since 1449. In addition, defensive walls were constructed in Shaanxi and Shanxi, laying the groundwork for the enduring Great Wall of China. The Ming also formed an alliance with Korea and effectively waged war against the Jurchen tribes in eastern Manchuria.
Early life and accession Zhu Jianshen, the future Chenghua Emperor, was born on 9 December 1447, as the eldest son of Emperor Yingzong, the sixth emperor of China's Ming dynasty, and his concubine, Lady Zhou. In 1449, the Mongols captured Emperor Yingzong in the Battle of Tumu Fortress. Emperor Yingzong's younger brother, Zhu Qiyu, took over the government. At the same time, Zhu Jianshen was appointed heir to the throne. A few days later, Zhu Qiyu ascended as the Jingtai Emperor. In 1450, the Mongols returned the captured Emperor Yingzong to the Ming, but the Jingtai Emperor put him under house arrest.
Zhu Jianshen remained heir until 1452, when his uncle demoted him to Prince of Yi (). He lived separately from his parents in poor material conditions and began to stutter under the pressure of the situation. However, the new heir, the Jingtai Emperor's only son, died in 1453. The succession question remained open and Zhu Jianshen's position was uncertain until the Jingtai Emperor fell ill in late 1456. Emperor Yingzong's followers exploited this uncertainty, staging a coup in February 1457 and restoring Emperor Yingzong to the throne. On 1 March 1457, Emperor Yingzong reappointed Zhu Jianshen heir to the throne. He changed his son's name from Jianshen to Jianru, possibly because the original name, chosen by the Jingtai Emperor in 1449, was not acceptable to himself.
Zhu Jianshen was often depicted by painters as robustly built, with full cheeks, sharp eyes, large earlobes, and a trimmed mustache and beard. These Central Asian features were also seen in portraits of his ancestors, going back to his great-great-grandfather. His son and successor, while also bearded, was smaller in stature, and other emperors were of a more slender, southern appearance. As a child, Zhu Jianshen was slow to react and had a stutter. This caused Emperor Yingzong to have doubts about his intelligence and ability to rule, but the grand secretaries, primarily Li Xian, convinced him to maintain the succession for his eldest son.
Emperor Yingzong died on 23 February 1464. The following day, a twelve-member imperial council was appointed to discuss government policies and advise the young emperor. The council consisted of six officials: Senior Grand Secretary Li Xian, the grand secretaries Peng Shi () and Chen Wen (; 1405–1468), Minister of Personnel Wang Ao, Minister of Revenue Nian Fu (), Minister of War Ma Ang (; 1399–1476); four court eunuchs: Liu Yongcheng (), Xia Shi (), Fu Gong, and Niu Yu (); and two military generals: Sun Jizong (), Marquis of Huichang, and Sun Tang (), Marquis of Huaining. On 28 February 1464, he ascended the throne and adopted the era name Chenghua, which means "accomplished change".
When the Chenghua Emperor assumed control of the government, he was already under the influence of his favorite, Wan Zhen'er. She had previously been a servant of his grandmother, Empress Sun, and he catered to her every whim. Intelligent and determined, Wan started off as his nanny and eventually became his concubine. At the time of his ascension to the throne, she was 34 years old, twice the age of the seventeen-year-old emperor.
The imperial household Empress dowagers and empresses
Conflicts among women within the Forbidden City had a negative impact on the Emperor's reputation. The first incident occurred on the day of his enthronement, when a dispute arose over the title of Emperor Yingzong's widow, Empress Qian. According to regulations, she should have become the empress dowager, but the Emperor's own mother, Lady Zhou, also claimed the same title. Despite being only a consort of Emperor Yingzong, she now held the status of mother to the reigning emperor and thus argued for the same title as Lady Qian. Lady Zhou also emphasized her loyalty to Emperor Yingzong, for which she had suffered alongside him during their years of house arrest from 1450–1457.
In the conflict between his mother and stepmother, the Emperor allowed the officials to express their opinions and secretly encouraged them to do so. However, he openly acted with apparent reluctance. Following the suggestions of Peng Shi and Li Xian, both women were given the title of empress dowager, with the addition of the characters Ciyi () before it for Lady Qian. Lady Zhou perceived this as discrimination and consistently pushed for her equal rights. The young emperor eventually fled from the quarreling empresses and sought refuge with Lady Wan.
After ascending the throne in 1464, the Chenghua Emperor married Lady Wu as his empress, but their relationship was short-lived as Empress Wu soon clashed with Lady Wan and requested that Lady Wan be punished for her disrespect. Just one month after their wedding, the Emperor deposed Empress Wu and stripped her of her title. She spent the next 45 years in seclusion within the Forbidden City. In the same year, Lady Wang became the new empress. She was careful not to provoke Lady Wan and remained childless in order to protect herself from any potential misfortune.
The imperial heir In 1466, Lady Wan bore the Emperor a son and was granted the title of "Noble Consort" (Guifei), but their son died within a year and Lady Wan did not have more children. In order to secure her position, she closely monitored the Emperor and even forced other women to have abortions to prevent the birth of a potential rival son. A few years later, with another concubine, the Emperor had a son who was named as his successor in December 1471, but the child died shortly afterward. It is widely believed by historians that Lady Wan played a role in the death of this child.
The court and government were greatly troubled by the absence of an heir and the influence of Lady Wan. Officials expressed their concerns to the Emperor in submissions, but he dismissed them as meddling in his personal matters. It was not until June 1475, when the Emperor lamented his lack of an heir at the age of twenty-eight, that a eunuch present impulsively informed him of the existence of a five-year-old son being raised by the former Empress Wu.
A few years earlier, the Emperor had an affair with a girl surnamed Ji from Guangxi, who was likely a captive of the Yao tribe and brought to the palace around 1467. In 1469, she met the Emperor and became pregnant. Lady Wan discovered the pregnancy, but her orders for the eunuchs to give the mother an abortifacient were not followed. Instead, they hid her in the chambers of Lady Wu's dissecting room, where she gave birth to a boy on 30 July 1470. For the next five years, the mother and child lived in secrecy with Lady Wu.
The Emperor, who was very enthusiastic about his son, recognized him and named him Zhu Youcheng. He then entrusted his mother, Empress Dowager Zhou, with overseeing the child's safety. A month later, Lady Ji died under suspicious circumstances. The Emperor then moved out of the palace occupied by Lady Wan and protected his heir from her. Empress Dowager Zhou warned her grandson not to eat or drink anything when visiting Lady Wan.
Lady Wan's camarilla The Emperor's relationship with Lady Wan changed after 1475, as he had five consorts and a total of eleven sons and six daughters between 1476 and 1487. Despite no longer living with Lady Wan, the Emperor remained devoted to her and may have tried to make up for his absence by supporting her activities. During the latter part of his reign, he rarely restricted her actions, even when they were illegal. Her agents were involved in various activities, such as mining for copper, silver, gold, and precious stones in Yunnan, foreign trade, pearl gathering in Guangdong, tax collection along the Yangtze River, and the salt trade. In 1483, one of her eunuchs was so arrogant while purchasing antiques in Suzhou that local officials and gentry were almost provoked to take up arms. Upon learning of his misconduct, the Emperor had him executed. Her chief eunuch, Liang Fang, was in charge of the imperial warehouse in Beijing, giving him the opportunity to sell goods at inflated prices to cover up the sale of offices organized by Lady Wan.
Despite numerous complaints, the Emperor did not punish Lady Wan for her actions. He punished officials who spoke out against her abuse of power, excessive spending, and corruption. She maintained significant influence until her death in 1487.
Another notorious eunuch during the Chenghua era was Wang Zhi (), a Yao-born man who was captured and castrated during the counterinsurgency campaigns of the 1460s. He initially served as a servant to Lady Wan, but only held minor positions until he was put in charge of the Western Depot in 1477. This secret police force was created to supplement the already-established Eastern Depot. Wang Zhi soon clashed with Grand Secretary Shang Lu and Minister of War Xiang Zhong (), leading to their dismissal. During this time, only those who were closely aligned with Lady Wan or those who remained silent were able to keep their positions. Wang Zhi terrorized the elite of Beijing for several years before being sent to inspect border troops in 1482. In 1483, his rival from the Eastern Depot presented accusations that gained the Emperor's trust, resulting in Wang being transferred to guard the imperial tombs in Nanjing.