The western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) is a medium-sized icterid bird, about in length. It is found across western and central North America and is a partial migrant, breeding in western Canada and western United States west of the Great Lakes, and in northern Mexico. In the northern half of the breeding range, the birds migrate south for the winter, while further south they are resident all year. The winter range also extends south and southeast of the breeding range, as far as central Mexico, and east to western Florida. The western meadowlark nests on the ground in open grasslands and shrublands. It feeds on bugs and seeds. The western meadowlark has distinctive calls described as watery or flute-like, which distinguish it from the closely related eastern meadowlark. The western meadowlark is the state bird of six states; in Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming.

Taxonomy The western meadowlark was formally described in 1844 by the American ornithologist John James Audubon under its current binomial name Sturnella neglecta. The specific epithet is from the Latin meaning "ignored", "overlooked", "neglected" or "disregarded". Audubon explained that although the account of the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1803–1806 mentioned yellow larks, these had never been formally described. The type locality is Old Fort Union, North Dakota.

Despite having "lark" in their name due to their melodic song, they are not true larks, but are instead in the New World blackbird family.

Two subspecies are recognized:

S. n. neglecta Audubon, 1844 – southwest, south central Canada through the west US (except coastal Pacific Northwest) to central Mexico S. n. confluenta Rathbun, 1917 – coastal southwest Canada and northwest US (southwest British Columbia to Oregon)

Western meadowlarks will occasionally hybridize with eastern meadowlarks where their ranges overlap. However, both species typically avoid sharing territories with the other and will only interbreed when mates are scarce. Offspring which result from these pairings appear to have low fertility.

Description Western meadowlark adults have yellow underparts with a black "V" on the breast and white flanks streaked with black. Their upper parts are mostly brown, but also have black streaks. These birds have long, pointed bills and their heads are striped with light brown and black bands.

Measurements:

Length: Wingspan: Weight:

These birds have a flute-like warbled song. These calls contrast with the simple, whistled call of the eastern meadowlark.

Distribution and habitat

The breeding habitat includes grasslands, prairies, pastures, and abandoned fields, all of which may be found across western and central North America, as far south as northern Mexico. In regions where their range overlaps with the eastern species, this species prefers thinner, drier vegetation; the two species generally do not interbreed but do defend territory against one another. Their nests are situated on the ground and are covered with a roof woven from grass. There may be more than one nesting female in a male's territory. Nests are sometimes destroyed by mowing operations with eggs and young in them.

Western meadowlarks are permanent residents throughout much of their range. Northern birds may migrate to the southern parts of their range; some birds also move east in the southern United States.

It has also been introduced to Hawaii to control insects, and is now found on the island of Kauai. Attempted introductions to other islands failed, likely due to the presence of the small Indian mongoose, which is absent from Kauai.

Behavior and ecology Breeding

The nest is built by the female soon after arrival on the breeding grounds. The nest is placed in a concealed location on the ground. It is variable in form and ranges from a simple cup to a partially roofed structure with a runway extending from the nest entrance. Eggs are laid at daily intervals. Incubation only begins after the last egg is laid. The eggs measure on average and have brownish spots and blotches on a white ground. The eggs hatch over a period of one or two days after being incubated by the female for 13–15 days. The young are altricial and nearly naked; their eyes are closed until the 4th day. Only the female broods the chicks. The nestlings are almost exclusively fed insects. The male brings food to the nest which is then usually fed to the chicks by the female. The young fledge at 10–12 days but are only capable of sustained flight at around 21 days. The young receive parental care for around 2 weeks after fledging. A second brood is attempted.

The nests are parasitized by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater).

Food and feeding Western meadowlarks forage on the ground or in low to semi-low vegetation. They sometimes search for food by probing with their bills. They mainly eat insects, although they will consume seeds and berries. In winter, these birds often feed in flocks.

Relationship to humans The western meadowlark is the state bird of six states, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming. The northern cardinal, which represents seven states, is the only bird to hold the status of state bird in more states.

During the 2017 regular session of the Oregon Legislature, there was a short-lived controversy over the western meadowlark's status as state bird versus the osprey. The sometimes-spirited debate included state representative Rich Vial playing the meadowlark's song on his smartphone over the House microphone. A compromise was reached in SCR 18, which was passed on the last day of the session, designating the western meadowlark as the state songbird and the osprey as the state raptor.

References

Further reading Books Lanyon, W. E. 1994. Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta). In The Birds of North America, No. 104 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists' Union.

Theses Davis SK. (2003). Habitat selection and demography of mixed-grass prairie songbirds in a fragmented landscape. Ph.D. The University of Regina (Canada), Canada. Horn AG. (1987). Repertoires and song switching in western meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta). Ph.D. University of Toronto (Canada), Canada. Pierce AM. (1974). Energetics and Water Economy in the Western Meadowlark, Sturnella Neglecta. Ph.D. University of California, Irvine, United States, California.

Articles Anderson JR & Merritt RW. (1977). "The Impact of Foraging Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta on the Degradation of Cattle Dung Pads". Journal of Applied Ecology. vol. 14, no. 2. pp. 355–362. Anderson RC. (1989). "The Development of Quadriplotriaena-Hypsokysta Nematoda Diplotriaenoidea in Grasshoppers Orthoptera". Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington. vol. 56, no. 2. pp. 199–201. Applegate RD & Willms AG. (1987). "Distribution and Population Trend of Western Meadowlarks in Illinois USA". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 19, no. 3. pp. 145–148. Aweida MK. (1995). "Repertoires, territory size and mate attraction in Western Meadowlarks". The Condor. vol. 97, no. 4. pp. 1080. Bakker KK, Naugle DE & Higgins KF. (2002). "Incorporating landscape attributes into models for migratory grassland bird conservation". Conservation Biology. vol. 16, no. 6. pp. 1638–1646. Belthoff JR, Powers LR & Reynolds TD. (1998). "Breeding birds at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1985–1991". Great Basin Naturalist. vol. 58, no. 2. pp. 167–183. Blair CL & Schitoskey FJ. (1982). "Breeding Biology and Diet of the Ferruginous Hawk Buteo-Regalis in South-Dakota USA". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 94, no. 1. pp. 46–54. Bock CE & Bock JH. (1987). "Avian Habitat Occupancy Following Fire in a Montana USA Shrubsteppe". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 19, no. 3. pp. 153–158. Bock CE, Bock JH & Bennett BC. (1995). "The avifauna of remnant tallgrass prairie near Boulder, Colorado". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 27, no. 3. pp. 147–157. Brandt CA & Rickard WHJ. (1992). "Effects of Survey Frequency on Bird Density Estimates in the Shrub-Steppe Environment". Northwest Science. vol. 66, no. 3. pp. 172–182. Bryan GG & Best LB. (1991). "Bird Abundance and Species Richness in Grassed Waterways in Iowa USA Rowcrop Fields". American Midland Naturalist. vol. 126, no. 1. pp. 90–102. Castrale JS. (1982). "Effects of 2 Sagebrush Artemisia-Spp Control Methods on Nongame Birds". Journal of Wildlife Management. vol. 46, no. 4. pp. 945–952. Cicchino AC & Castro DC. (1996). "Preliminary revision of the species of the genus Brueelia Keler, 1936 (Phthiraptera, Philopteridae) parasitizing Icterinae (Aves, Passeriformes, Fringillidae)". Graellsia. vol. 52, no. 0. pp. 3–30. Cosens SE & Falls JB. (1984). "A Comparison of Sound Propagation and Song Frequency in Temperate Marsh and Grassland Habitats". Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol. 15, no. 3. pp. 161–170. Dale BC, Martin PA & Taylor PS. (1997). "Effects of hay management on grassland songbirds in Saskatchewan". Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 616–626. Davis CA. (2001). "Abundance and habitat associations of birds wintering in the Platte River Valley, Nebraska". Great Plains Research. vol. 11, no. 2. pp. 233–248. Davis SK. (2003). "Nesting ecology of mixed-grass prairie songbirds in southern Saskatchewan". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 115, no. 2. pp. 119–130. Davis SK. (2004). "Area sensitivity in grassland passerines: Effects of patch size, patch shape, and vegetation structure on bird abundance and occurrence in southern Saskatchewan". Auk. vol. 121, no. 4. pp. 1130–1145. Davis SK. (2005). "Nest-site selection patterns and the influence of vegetation on nest survival of mixed-grass prairie passerines". Condor. vol. 107, no. 3. pp. 605–616. Davis SK, Brigham RM, Shaffer TL & James PC. (2006). "Mixed-grass prairie passerines exhibit weak and variable responses to patch size". Auk. vol. 123, no. 3. pp. 807–821. Deweese LR, McEwen LC, Settimi LA & Deblinger RD. (1983). "Effects on Birds of Fenthion Aerial Application for Mosquito Control". Journal of Economic Entomology. vol. 76, no. 4. pp. 906–911. Dickinson TE & Falls JB. (1989). "How Western Meadowlarks Respond to Simulated Intrusions by Unmated Females". Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 217–226. Dickinson TE, Falls JB & Kopachena J. (1987). "Effects of Female Pairing Status and Timing of Breeding on Nesting Productivity in Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 65, no. 12. pp. 3093–3101. Dieni JS & Jones SL. (2003). "Grassland songbird nest site selection patterns in northcentral Montana". Wilson Bulletin. vol. 115, no. 4. pp. 388–396. Dieni JS & Scherr P. (2004). "Roadside bias in point count surveys at Arrowwood National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota". Prairie Naturalist. vol. 36, no. 4. pp. 203–211. Ellis CJ. (1973). "Syringeal Histology Part 2 Meadowlark Sturnella-Magna Sturnella-Neglecta". Iowa State Journal of Research. vol. 48, no. 2. pp. 175–191. Erwin WJ & Stasiak RH. (1979). "Vertebrate Mortality During the Burning of a Reestablished Prairie in Nebraska". American Midland Naturalist. vol. 101, no. 1. pp. 247–249. Faanes CA. (1981). "Birds of the St-Croix River Valley Minnesota and Wisconsin USA". North American Fauna. vol. 73, pp. 1–196. Falls JB. (1985). "Song Matching in Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 63, no. 11. pp. 2520–2524. Falls JB & D'Agincourt LG. (1981). "A Comparison of Neighbor Stranger Discrimination in Eastern Meadowlarks Sturnella-Magna and Western Meadowlarks Sturnella-Neglecta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol. 59, no. 12. pp. 2380–2385. Falls JB, Horn AG & Dickinson TE. (1988). "How Western Meadowlarks Classify Their Songs Evidence from Song Matching". Animal Behaviour. vol. 36, no. 2. pp. 579–585.