Woodworking is the skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinetry, furniture making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning.
History
Along with stone, clay, and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.
Among the earliest finds of woodworking are shaped sticks displaying notches from Kalambo Falls in southern Africa, dating to around 476,000 years ago. The Clacton spearhead from Clacton-on-Sea, England, dating to around 400,000 years ago,Allington-Jones, L., (2015) Archaeological Journal, 172 (2) 273–296 The Clacton Spear – The Last One Hundred Years the Schöningen spears, from Schöningen (Germany) dating around 300,000 years ago and the Lehringen spear from northern Germany, dating to around 120,000 years ago, provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting implements. Wooden tools likely used for domestic activities including probable awls have also been found at Schöningen.
Flint tools were used for carving. Since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra.
Examples of Bronze Age woodcarving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs. The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period known from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France.
Ancient Egypt
There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) have been preserved. Tombs contain a large collection of these artifacts, and the inner coffins found within them were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC, bronze, as iron working was unknown until much later.Leospo, Enrichetta (2001), "Woodworking in Ancient Egypt", The Art of Woodworking, Turin: Museo Egizio, p. 20 Each metal used over time for woodworking was harder and more able to hold an edge than the one used prior.
Commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period. These joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period.Leospo, pp. 20–21 Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing. However, the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Although different native acacias were used, as was the wood from the local sycamore and tamarisk trees, deforestation in the Nile valley resulted in the need for the importation of wood, notably cedar, but also Aleppo pine, boxwood and oak, starting from the Second Dynasty.Leospo, pp. 17–19
Ancient Rome Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dyes, waterproofing materials, and heat.Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost, the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses.
Ancient China The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班 ) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, the chalk line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban")(魯班經 ). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is largely filled with descriptions of dimensions for building various items, such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc., and also contains extensive instructions on Feng Shui. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous.
Modern day
With advances in technology and industry demands, the field of woodwork has changed. The development of Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines, for example, has made it possible to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often with more complex designs than ever before. CNC wood routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock to create signs or art. Power tools have increased the efficiency of the manufacture of woodworking projects and require less physical strength than the hand tools used in the past.
Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for handcrafted work such as furniture and art; however, due to production rates and costs, consumer prices are higher.
Modern wood carving usually refers to works of wood art produced by woodcarvers as contemporary art. This type of woodcarving often combines traditional techniques with more modern artistic styles and concepts. Modern woodcarving can be produced in a variety of forms and styles, from realistic to abstract, and often uses unusual woods, such as rain tree or woods with unique textures, to highlight the work's uniqueness.
In recent years, the art of modern woodcarving has become increasingly popular among woodworkers and visual art enthusiasts worldwide. Modern woodcarving art is often exhibited in art galleries and museums, and can be seen in several global contemporary art exhibitions.
Styles and designs Woodworking, especially furniture making, has many different designs/styles. Throughout its history, woodworking designs and styles have changed. Some of the more common styles are listed below. Traditional furniture styles usually include pieces that have been around for a long time and have long been associated with wealth and luxury. More modern furniture styles have been commonly used over the past few hundred years. +Common woodworking/furniture stylesTraditional & timeless styles Modern furniture styles JacobeanAntiqueDutchAmerican colonialVictorianTraditionalArt DecoVintageSheratonRusticRetroModernMinimalismContemporary
Materials See also Wood: Properties and Tonewood: Properties.
Historically, woodworkers relied on the woods native to their region until innovations in transportation and trade made more exotic woods available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees, softwoods from coniferous trees, and manufactured materials such as plywood and MDF.
Hardwoods, botanically classified as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually in response to temperature changes. Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms, which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round. Although a general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always "softer" than hardwoods, and vice versa.
Softwood is most commonly found in regions with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks than hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to the tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries. Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 432–592 kg/m3, which can compromise its strength. Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows them to have greater strength relative to their weight. In the United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available. Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing.
Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and the poles and are of particular interest to woodworkers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and their sustainable sourcing. Tropical hardwoods are found within the equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 1041 kg/m3 as a result of slower growing rates, and are more stable when drying. As a result of their high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle. While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking. Hardwoods have a wide variety of properties, that afford woodworkers a species to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay. The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in the United States and, as a result, are more expensive.
Typically, furniture such as tables and chairs is made from solid hardwood stock due to its strength and resistance to warping. Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color, and take a finish better, which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools. Cabinet/fixture makers employ the use of plywood and other manufactured panel products that afford greater stability (resistance to changes with temperature and humidity). Some furniture building, such as the Windsor chair, involve green woodworking, shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture before drying.
Common softwoods used for furniture
Cedar Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the western red cedar. Western red cedar can withstand wet conditions without rotting and, as a result, is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers in the US and Canada for a moderate price.
Fir In the USA, fir, also known as Douglas fir, is inexpensive and readily available at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern is relatively plain, and it does not stain well, so fir is commonly used for finished products that will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making.
Pine White pine, ponderosa, and southern yellow pine are common species used in furniture-making. White pine and ponderosa are typically used for indoor projects, while Southern yellow pine is recommended for outdoor projects due to its durability.
Common hardwoods used for furniture
Ash