Victorian majolica properly refers to two types of majolica made in the second half of the 19th century in Europe and America.1877, Leon Arnoux, Pottery, British Manufacturing Industries, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38953/38953-h/38953-h.htm, Gutenberg pages 392-394, The name of majolica is now applied indiscriminately to all fancy articles of coloured pottery. When, however, it is decorated by means of coloured glazes [coloured lead glazes], if these are transparent [translucent], it ought to be called Palissy ware [coloured glazes], from the name of the great artist who used these for his beautiful works.
Firstly, and best known, there is the mass-produced majolica decorated with coloured lead glazes, made in Britain, Europe and the US; typically hard-wearing, surfaces moulded in relief, vibrant translucent glazes, in occasionally classical but mostly naturalistic styles, often with an element of High Victorian whimsy.
Secondly, there is the much less common tin-glazed majolica made primarily by Mintons from 1848 to circa 1880, typically with flat surfaces, opaque white glaze with fine brush painted decoration in imitation of the Italian Renaissance maiolica process and styles.
Glazes Glaze is a vitreous coating on a ceramic. Types of glazing include feldspathic or alkali-glazed, salt-glazed, lead-glazed, and tin-glazed.
Lead oxide is a key ingredient of both lead and tin glazes. Lead oxide is a flux that causes lead and tin glazes to fuse to the earthenware biscuit body at a low oven temperature, about 800 °C. The other ingredients in lead and tin glazes are typically an equally large quantity of silicates, and a small proportion of alkali (feldspar or similar) ground up with a little water and the large proportion of lead oxide to form a paste.
A coloured glaze results from adding a small amount of particular metal oxides to plain lead glaze, different metal oxides producing different colours.blue (cobalt oxide), green (copper oxide), brown (manganese dioxide), yellow (iron oxide), etc. Since mid-19th century coloured glazes earthenware has been known as majolica.2018, Claire Blakey, Minton Majolica: A Visual Feast of Victorian Opulence Minton Archive "Majolica is the term used to describe pottery made of an earthenware body coated with semi-translucent coloured lead glazes. It was developed at the Minton factory in the late 1840s by Léon Arnoux, who had come to the Potteries in 1848."
An opaque white tin-glaze results from adding a small amount of tin oxide to plain lead glaze. Decorated with brush-painted enamels, tin-glazed earthenware from mid-15th century onwards has been known as maiolica,See wikt:majolica for quotations, citations also later as faience, delftware, talavera, or rarely majolica, though commonly majolica in the US.Unambiguous citations for the two distinct 'majolicas' (distinct in appearance, origin, history, style, and manufacturing process/technique) will contain the word 'majolica' along with a qualifier to show which product is being cited. Majolica meaning tin-glazed earthenware: Qualifiers – dateable to before 1848, 'maiolica', 'tin-glazed', 'tin-enameled', 'opaque', 'white', 'brushwork', 'delft', 'stanniferous', 'faience', 'Minton tin-glazed majolica'. Majolica meaning colored lead glazes earthenware: Qualifiers – dateable to after 1848, used in the same sentence as tin-glaze majolica/maiolica, 'coloured glazes', 'Mintons Palissy ware', 'lead-glazed majolica'
Coloured glazes majolica n. 1. is earthenware decorated with coloured lead glazes applied directly to an unglazed body. Victorian majolica is the familiar mass-produced earthenware decorated with coloured lead glazesLeon Arnoux, 1867, British Manufacturing Industry - Report on Pottery, p.42 "Majolica [tin-glaze earthenware, opaque white surface brush-painted in enamel colours] was produced for the first time by Messrs. Minton, in 1850, and they have been for many years the only producers of this article. The name of majolica is now applied indiscriminately to all fancy articles of coloured pottery. When, however, it is decorated by means of coloured glazes [applied directly to the 'biscuit'], if these are transparent [translucent], it ought to be called Palissy ware ... Messrs. Wedgwood, George Jones, and a few other makers of less importance, are reproducing it more or less successfully. To Messrs. Minton, however, we owe the revival of the ware [the coloured lead glazes ware that they named 'Palissy ware'], which, in connection with [in addition to] their majolica [the tin-glaze product], created such a sensation in the French International Exhibition of 1855." made during the Victorian era (1837–1900) in Britain, Europe and the US, typically hard-wearing, surfaces frequently moulded in relief, vibrant translucent glazes, in a variety of styles and formsmonumental exhibition pieces, ornamental vases, flower pots, household table services, decorative candlesticks, centrepieces, desk and dressing table paraphernalia, floor and fire-surround tiles, garden seats, walking stick holders, dog bowls, etc. (some examples below). Shown in Britain at the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, it became fashionable, widely copied and mass-produced worldwide. Also known as: maiolica, Palissy ware, coloured glazes majolica, coloured-glazed majolica, lead-glazed majolica, and misleadingly 'lead or tin glazed' majolica.
Some coloured glazes majolica was produced in traditional Classical or RevivalistInspired by historical wares styles, but Darwinism, natural history, their English country gardens, expeditions abroad, and trade in oriental products generated more exciting styles appealing to the upcoming merchant classes. There was a boom in naturalisticDerived from or closely imitating real life or nature pottery, often with an element of whimsy, to which Minton's inexpensive, durable, multi-purpose product was well suited. A strong interest in the world at large generated passing fashions for Egyptian forms, Japanese styles, Chinoiserie and High Victorian style. Conservatories became a fashion statement. Adorning them were spectacular majolica garden seats, flower pots, jardinières, stands, large birds and animals. The irrepressible urge to impress guests with rare food led to the growing of pineapples and egg-plants (aubergines) formerly only available overseas. These too appeared as decorative objects for admiration around the home. Minton's Palissy ware boomed. Pottery makers throughout Britain, Europe and the US copied the process with great success, albeit variable quality. Palissy ware/Majolica went global.
Tin-glaze majolica n. 2. is earthenware, coated with opaque white tin-glaze and ornamented with metallic oxide colours. Tin-glazed Victorian majolica is the rare tin-glazed earthenware made primarily by Mintons from 1848 to circa 1880, typically with flat surfaces, and opaque whitish glaze with brush painted decoration in the style(s) of Italian Renaissance maiolica tin-glazed pottery. Also known as: maiolica; and 'lead or tin' glazed majolica.
Minton's tin-glazed majolica in imitation of Italian maiolica, praised at Exhibitions and purchased by Royalty and museums, made little commercial impact. Other pottery makers shunned the process.
Interest in Renaissance styles was waning, fashion moving on with the usual protestations from older generations: "...the current of fashion, however contrary to right, wisdom, and good taste..."Digby Wyatt, M., Journal of the Society of Arts, May 26, 1858, p.448
Cost of production was high. Compared to the lead-glaze process whereby thick, temperature-compatible coloured lead glazes were applied direct to the biscuit, simultaneously, then fired, (paint, fire), the tin-glaze process required extra stages for dipping/coating and drying the tin-glaze before decoration could even begin, (dip, dry, paint, fire). Added to this, the expense of brushwork decoration, especially the fine painting of pictures and designs, was very time-consuming, requiring highly skilled,Brush-applied decoration becomes 'embedded' upon contact with the 'raw' unfired tin-glaze, somewhat in the manner of fresco, with no possibility of alteration or overpainting. higher paid artists.
Meanings of majolica The term majolica has been dogged by confusion starting with the English anglicisation of the word maiolica into majolica following the appearance of the letter j in the English alphabet mid-17th century.
Leon Arnoux, the artistic and technical director of Mintons, wrote in 1852 "We understand by majolica a pottery formed of a calcareous clay gently fired, and covered with an opaque enamel composed of sand, lead, and tin..." He was describing the Minton & Co. tin-glazed product made in imitation of Italian maiolica both in process and in styles. Remember, tin-glaze is simply plain lead glaze with a little tin oxide added. His description is often referenced,* Merriam-Webster Online Oxford Dictionaries online in error, as a definition of Minton's other new product, the much copied and later mass-produced ceramic sensation of the Victorian era, Minton's coloured lead glazes 'Palissy ware'. The 16th-century French pottery of Bernard Palissy was well known and much admired.Art Journal, 1850, Catalogue to Mediaeval Exhibition "...sections are thus enumerated in the catalogue:- ... 4. Italian Majolica [tin-glazed Italian maiolica]; ... 7. Palissy Ware [16th century]; ..."Christie, Manson & Woods Catalogue, June 16, 1884, Sale of Fontaine Collection of Majolica [tin-glazed Italian], Henri II, Palissy Ware [16th century] ... Mintons adopted the name 'Palissy ware' for their new coloured glazes product, but this soon became known also as majolica.Paul Atterbury and Maureen Batkin, 1997, 'Dictionary of Minton', Antique Collectors' Club. "Minton did not use the word maiolica themselves, relying instead on the Victorian version, majolica, which they used to mean wares of Renaissance inspiration, featuring hand painting on an opaque white glaze. These were therefore quite distinct from the coloured glaze decorated wares also called majolica, but which Minton referred to as Palissy wares." Minton & Co. appear to have done little to promote the clear distinction between their tin-glazed and coloured glazes products.
Minton archive first design for majolica Thomas Kirkby's design G144 in the Minton Archive is inscribed "This is the First Design for Majolica ...". The design is Italian Renaissance in style. Close-up images illustrate a design suited for fine brushwork on flat surfaces. The design is for Minton's rare tin-glaze Majolica imitation of Italian tin-glaze maiolica. Minton's designs for Palissy ware, also known as majolica, were suited for 'thick' painting of coloured lead glazes onto surfaces moulded in relief to make best use of the intaglio effect.Light and dark created by glaze pooling in the lower areas of a relief moulding.
English makers Minton, the originator Great Exhibition (1851)
Victorian majolica was originated by Minton & Co., first exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
The 1851 Exhibition CatalogueCatalogue, (1851), Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue in Three Volumes, Volume II. London. W. Clowes & Sons lists the two Victorian majolica products by Minton in consecutive sections.
Earthenware [...] Flowerpots, etc. Exhibit Number 60. "A variety of [...] flowerpots and stands, and garden seats." refers to the coloured glazes product that Mintons called Palissy ware.
Tiles, Terra Cotta, and Vases, etc, in imitation of Majolica Ware. Exhibit Number 74. "Variety of flowerpots and stands, coloured in the majolica style, etc." refers to the tin-glazed product painted with enamels that Mintons called Majolica.
Exposition Universelle (1855)
The Illustrated London News reported with approval on Minton's two new products shown at the Exposition Universelle in Paris: